tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-19822537894153017712024-02-02T13:03:31.457-05:00Introduction to PhilosophyCarter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-55086739018273620562015-12-29T12:55:00.009-05:002024-01-31T17:14:43.503-05:00Introduction<b>Reading:</b><br />
<div>
<br />
<span style="color: black;">Osborne: 1-4<br />Kenny: x-xii, 1-20</span><br />
<span style="color: black;">Penguin: as appropriate</span><br />
<span style="color: #eeeeee;">Robinson: 1-7</span><br />
Supplemental Reading:</div>
<div>
<span style="color: #f3f3f3;">Oxford: v-vi, 363-378</span><br />
<a href="http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/zt.htm">Philosophy Timeline 1</a></div>
<div>
<a href="http://www.wadsworth.com/philosophy_d/special_features/timeline/timeline.html#">Philosophy Timeline 2</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://plato-dialogues.org/tools/greece.htm">Map of Ancient Greece 1</a></div>
<div>
<a href="http://www.in2greece.com/english/maps/map_of_Ancient_Greece.jpg">Map of Ancient Greece 2</a></div>
<div>
<br />
<b>Terms:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="https://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2019/05/what-is-philosophy.html">What is Philosophy?</a><br />
Metaphysics<br />
Epistemology<br />
Ontology<br />
Logic<br />
Ethics<br />
Aesthetics<br />
Political Philosophy <br />
Axiology *<br />
Pre-Socratic Philosophy<br />
Sophist<br />
<br />
<br />
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Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-38102016146579645072015-12-29T12:54:00.006-05:002022-10-02T14:59:16.697-04:00Philosophy of Classical Greece<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b>Reading:</b></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black;">Osborne: 4-22</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black;">Kenny: 21-108</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span style="color: black;">Penguin: as appropriate </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: #f3f3f3; font-size: medium;">Robinson: 7-36</span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Supplemental Reading:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #eeeeee; font-size: medium;">Oxford: 1-36, 275-286</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Aristophanes: </span></span><i><a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophanes/clouds.html"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Clouds</span></span></a></i><br />
<i></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />Hamilton: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Greek Way</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Chapter VI, </span></span><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=D3QwvF3GWOkC&pg=PA65&dq=The+Greek+Way+As+Plato+Saw+them#v=onepage&q=The%20Greek%20Way%20As%20Plato%20Saw%20them&f=false"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“The Athenians as Plato Saw Them”</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b>Terms:</b> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />Thales (625-547?)<br />Anaximander (610-545) *<br />Pythagoras (581-507)<br />Heraclitus (540-480)<br />Permenides (515- 445)<br />Democritus (460-370)<br />Protagoras (490-420)<br />Gorgias (483-376)<br />Hippocrates (460-377) *<br />Pericles (490-429)<br />Socrates (470-399)<br />Plato (428-348)<br />Aristotle (384-322)<br /><br /><b>Notes:</b><br />GREEK HISTORY OF THE CLASSICAL PERIOD<br />(or how to create a civilization and then destroy it) </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Pericles</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (490-429 BC): Statesman, soldier, admiral; patron of public works, architecture and drama.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleon"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Cleon</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (d. 422 BC): Vehement in the pursuit of power; unscrupulous deal-maker, political crony and war monger--as characterized by </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thucydides</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Aristophanes</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />a) Aristophanes frequently ridiculed Cleon in his plays. In 426 Cleon attacked Aristophanes' <i>Babylonians</i> as a libel against the State. </span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Persian Wars (499-449)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Classical Historical Source: </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Herodotus</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"></a></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Athens and Greece defeat the empire of the Persian despot Darius, who thought he had a mission from God to impose peace and good order upon the world.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">I – The Ionian Revolt (499): The Milesian Aristagoras leads a break from Persian control and organizes a league of rebel cities along the coast of Asia Minor. Various Greek interests support the Ionians. Darius sets his sights and his armies upon Greece.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">II – The Campaign of Marathon (492): Sparta and Athens form an alliance to save Athens from invading Persian armies. Victory in the Battle of Marathon insures Athens will survive as a democracy.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">III – The Expedition of Xerxes (480): Xerxes, son of Darius and King of Persia (486-465) inherits his father’s task of punishing the Greeks for aiding the Ionians. Xerxes invades with 100, 000 men and 1,000 ships, and with the aid of Carthaginians, who attack the Greek colonies on Sicily. Greece unites to repel the Persians, whose fleet is defeated by the Athenian navy at the Battle of Salamis. Greeks now have command of the sea.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">IV – The Campaign of 479: Greeks fight Persians on their own territory. Spartans destroy the Persians, spurring more Greeks along the coast of Asia Minor to rebel against the Persians.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">V – The Greek Counter-Attack: In 478 the Greeks clear the entrance to the Black Sea, capture Byzantium and start a rebellion on Cyprus. Delian League formed under the leadership of Athens, consists of liberated Greeks in the Aegean Islands and Asia Minor. In 459 Athens sends a fleet of 200 ships to aid a rebellion in Egypt. The Persians are driven up the Nile. In 449 Pericles concludes a peace with the Persians, which secures the independence of the Asiatic Greeks and closes the Aegean to Persian warships.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">VI – Greece is united militarily and culturally through alliances and trade, but internal division will cut short the golden age.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Peloponnesian War(s) (431-404)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Classical historical source: </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thucydides</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thucydides"></a></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">I – Athens was morally the aggressor, but Sparta began the war.<br />II – Spartans and Boeotians were the finest land soldiers in Greece, but Athens had the superior navy, possessed more colonies, was richer, and safely withdrew inside her walls during the siege. It was Pericles’ strategy to outlast the attackers.<br />III – Athens and her port were safe, and the navy made things difficult for the Peloponnesians.<br />IV – 425: The Peloponnesians sued for peace. Pericles’ strategy had won, but Cleon, now the ruler of Athens, refused the peace offering. Fighting continued until 422; a treaty was signed, but once again scheming politicians got the war going again. Athens greatness was eroded by the greed of commercial interests and politicians, who made money from the war.<br />V – Patriotism was eroded; citizens and generals switched sides for personal gain. The Persians aided the Peloponnesians. Athens’ subject states and colonies rebelled.<br />VI – 406: Athens won an important navel battle, but yet again the politicians rejected the opportunity for peace.<br />VII – 405: The last Athenian fleet was destroyed.<br />VIII – 404: Athens was surrounded and surrendered.<br />IX – Athens (and Greece) was never the same after the war.<br />1) The Greeks, who were never gentle to begin with, henceforth treated prisoners and non-combatants with gross cruelty.<br />2) Further attempts at Greek unity were defeated.<br />3) An enlightened system of colonies and tributes was replaced by a corrupt and incompetent imperial system.<br />4) The old autonomy (both political and cultural) was lost forever.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHY</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /><br />I - Philosophy "love + wisdom," or "devotion to uncommon knowledge."<br />II - Philosophy is identified with critical and constructive thought about the physical world, the place of gods and souls in it, the relationship between reality and appearance, and the origins and nature of human society, and the principles that ought to govern it.<br />III - The Greek mind was willing to question conventions, and was receptive to novel ideas from abroad.<br />IV - Thus philosophy is mixed and diluted by the spread of untraditional doctrines derived not from pure reason but from Oriental myth.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /><br /><b>The Milesians:</b> Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes<br /><br />Miletus was a town in Ionia on the shore of Asia Minor (Turkey)<br /><br />I - Left writings, but their primary mode of teaching was through giving discourses.<br />II - Tried to assemble systematic accounts for all the notable features of the observable world--movements of heavenly bodies, phases of the moon, eclipses, lightning, thunder, rain, snow, hail, rainbows, earthquakes, floods--and from these accounts created explanations for the universe, extrapolating from the visible world that lies outside it.<br />III - Unable to completely free themselves from the conventions and preconceptions of mythology:<br />a) Something as complex as the world must have originated from something simple.<br />b) The Earth is finite, essentially circular, and is supported by something different beneath it.<br />c) The sky is a physical entity.<br />d) Immortal sources of energy are the moving or directing forces of the universe.<br />e) Everything can be explained as a handful of universal processes which emerged from a single original continuum.<br />f) They didn't seek to eliminate divinity from the world, but they did attempt to eliminate the arbitrary events characteristic of mythical narratives. In effect, they depersonalized their gods--recast them as so-called "laws of nature"--and then identified these laws as unchanging forces that govern the workings of the universe.<br /><br />Thales (fl. 585 BCE)<br /><br />I - Left no writings. We know of him through Aristotle, who ascribed to him certain doctrines.<br />II - The universe and everything in it derives from water, and the Earth rests on water.<br />III - Similar in most respects to Egyptian and Semitic creation stories in which the original universe of waters is divided from and covered over by earth.<br /><br />Anaximander (c. 612-545 BCE)<br /><br />I -Gave discourses and wrote books (among the earliest works written in Greek prose)<br />II - Taught our world and countless others came into being out of the "Boundless" and will eventually be absorbed back into it.<br />III - Gave a detailed account of the stages by which the parts of the cosmos were differentiated, and described their shape and arrangement.<br />IV - The sun, moon and stars are really rings of fire, respectively twenty-seven, eighteen and nine times the diameter of the earth which they encircle, and each is contained by a tube of mist with holes in it through which their fires shines out.<br />V - The Earth is a drum shaped-body with a depth a third of its diameter floating at the center of the rings.<br />VI - The universe exists as an "imbalance" or "injustice" in the "Boundless," which must in due course be adjusted back to balance according to the ordinance of Time.<br />VII - Undoubtedly inspired by Persian cosmology.<br />a) The sequence of of earth, stars, moon, sun, is distinctively Persian, not Greek.<br />b) The "Boundless" that lies beyond the sun corresponds to the "Beginningless Lights" which are the abode of Ohrmazd and the highest paradise of the </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Zoroastrians</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.<br />c) According to the myth, Ohrmazd created the world with the blessing of the ageless god of Time, and a finite of period of 12,000 years was appointed for the duration of the universe.<br />d) Thus the so-called "Ordinance of Time" in Anaximander's system was not a creation of his intellect, but a borrowing traceable to pagan mythology. Ohrmazd's act of creative will is made by Anaximander into a "law of nature."<br />VIII - Anaximander is said to have worn extravagant and flamboyant clothing, as did later sophists and rhapsodes).<br /><br />Anaximenes (fl. c. 545 BCE)<br /><br />I - Gave discourses and wrote books (among the earliest works written in Greek prose)<br />II - The world is encompassed by air which has the qualities--much like Anaxamader's Boundless--of infinite extent, immortality, and perpetual motion leading to the formation of worlds. Nature dose not change into something unimaginable at the edge of the cosmos.<br />III - Motion and movement are properties of air, which is essentially a live substance.<br />IV - Air surrounds, contains and holds the world together: Everything inside and outside is based on air and its transformations.<br />V - By the same token, the soul, which is air, surrounds, contains, and holds the body together. Hence, the soul is not separate from the material world, but a natural part of it.<br />VI - This notion has affinities with Indian mythology and the </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Upanishadic</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> doctrine of a universal wind or breath, which forms both the unchanging life-soul of the world and the individual self. The universal wind or breath holds all living things and the world together, and is obeyed by the whole universe.<br />VII - The Earth is a flat disk supported by air, and from it vapors rise and form fiery disks--the sun, moon, stars, and invisible solid bodies that account for eclipses.<br />VIII - The dark bodies that can cause eclipses and the notion that the heavenly bodies circle around a mountain in the North seems to be of Persian origin.</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Other Pre-Socratic Philosophers</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /><br />Pythagoras of Samos (c. 570-495 BCE)<br /><br />I - Part philosopher, part priest, part conjuror. He was reported to have worn splendid and flamboyant clothing, including a gold coronet, a white robe, and trousers.<br />II - He did not discourse in reasoned prose but affected poetic inspiration and recited verse under the authority of the god Orpheus.<br />III - He bequeathed to his followers brief maxims, catechisms, dietary rules, and enigmatic sayings which expressed old religious taboos, and recondite cosmological and eschatological dogmas.<br />IV - Believed in reincarnation. The doctrine, which is of Indian origin, came to Greece in the mid-sixth century, a century or so after it had come to India. According to the Upanishads, souls which fail to pass the moon return to Earth as rain and are reincarnated in whatever animal form is appropriate to their conduct in their last life.<br />IV - His followers added to the body of his teachings, and composed poems embodying picturesque metaphysics. They also took their inspiration from Pythagoras' mystical interest in numbers and music, and developed the study of mathematics and harmony in a more scientific spirit.<br />V - It became difficult to disentangle Pythagoras' own ideas from the ideas of his followers.<br /><br />Xenophanes (c. 570-c. 475 BCE)<br /><br />I - Earth stretched forever in all directions (length, breadth and depth) with empty air above it (length, breadth and height).<br />II - The disappearance of the sun and other heavenly bodies over the western horizon was an optical illusion: they were really continuing in a straight line, just getting further away.<br />III - There were other suns, moons and heavenly objects moving in parallel tracks over other regions of the Earth. These heavenly bodies are formed by rising vapors from clouds which ignite and become incandescent, and this process occurs with strict regularity.<br />IV - He pointed out that religious beliefs and customs were based on mere convention. Greeks represented their gods as Greeks, Asians represented their Gods as Asians, and Africans represented their gods as Africans. If cows and horses had hands, they would no doubt represent their gods as cows and horses.<br />V - Xenophanes' god does not have have human shape, and does not behave immorally as the Gods do in Homer. Xenophanes' god has no eyes or ears. Every part of him is sentient. He does not move from place to place, but stays still, effortlessly moving the world around him by the power of his thought.<br /><br />Heraclitus (fl. c. 500 BCE)<br /><br />I - Wrote in a haughty and oratorical manner.<br />II - Unusual for his time because he criticized other philosophers. Named Xenophenes as one of several notable men to whom learning had not taught sense.<br />III - Believed, like Xenophenes, in many gods, but also looked for an overriding master purpose in a unique intelligence which governs everything. The intelligence "does and does not want to be called 'Zeus.'"<br />IV - The universe is a fire which has always existed, though not all parts of it are alighted at once. The parts that are not alight exist as other substances, and are convertible with fire.<br />V - Everything in the world is thus participating in one continuous process, a concept which was to form the basis of Stoic cosmology a few centuries later. The process is likened to strife or war, and is controlled by the divine agent of justice, perhaps given direction and momentum by the thunderbolt.<br />VII - Underlying cosmic unity: opposites are aspects of the same thing: Hot and cold, wet and dry, living and dead, are not irreconcilable opposites, because things pass from one state to the other. Opposites also reconcile themselves through simultaneous perspective: A road up is also a road down. Sea water is drinkable for a fish, but not for a man. A monkey may appear ugly to a man, but handsome to another monkey. Thus, day and night, summer and winter, war and peace, and famine and abundance are different manifestations of God, and the elements path to reconciliation and balance.<br />VIII - Heraclitus is uninterested in the physical structure of the universe. The center of his interest is religion, morality, and the destiny of the soul. In respect to these matters, the cosmos is guided by the cyclic transformation of fire into the other elements: Souls die by turning into water, which dies in turn by becoming earth.<br /><br />Empedocles (c. 495-435 BCE)<br /><br />I - Believed in reincarnation. The doctrine, which is of Indian origin, came to Greece in the mid-sixth century, a century or so after it had come to India. According to the Upanishads, those souls that fail to pass the moon return to Earth as rain and are reincarnated in whatever animal form is appropriate to their conduct in their last life. Empedocles believed that killing and eating of animals was cannibalism, and implored men to abandon it.<br />II - Promoted a theory of the soul and the cosmos involving cyclic changes over vast periods of time.<br />III - Everything in the world is produced by the mixture and the separation of the four elements: Earth, Air, Fire, Water.<br />IV - Rejects Homer's gods as so much prey to love and strife, and regards them as allegories of the conflicts of men in the physical world.<br />V - The principles of love and strife are elevated into a pair of supreme powers who rule in regular alteration by the terms of a treaty. When love holds sway, the four elements are blended into a homogeneous sphere. When strife enters the sphere, the elements begin to separate and from a cosmos, eventually forming four distinct spheres, one for each element, with earth in the center, surrounded by a sphere of water, then a sphere of air, followed by a sphere of fire. The present universe is proceeding toward this state. Subsequently, the reverse process will operate until the process is completed.<br />VI - Within this scheme, souls are identified with fire, but if they consort with strife they can be torn away from their fellows, and are forced to consort with the other elements for thousands of years--a soul passing through countless reincarnations as plants and animals.<br />VIII - Empedocles was another who dressed to attract attention. In addition to lecturing on the nature of the world, he prescribed cures for sickness and old age, and claimed the ability to control the weather, and raise men from the dead. According to his own accounts, he was followed by great crowds, who adorned him with ribbons and garlands, and asked him for oracles and remedies.<br /><br />Anaxagoras (c. 550-428 BCE)<br /><br />I - Like Empedocles, but without cycles. Universe begins as a state of perfect mixture which is then unbalanced by the operation of a divine force. No limit to the number of ingredients in the mixture, and separation process is never absolute. There always remains a proportion of every substance in everything. We name each thing according to the substance which predominates in it, as if it were composed purely of that substance.<br />II - The only thing not mixed with everything else is Mind, the purest element of all. Mind is able to control everything else. Mind is the divine force that gives the cosmos the initial impulse, and supervises the process of creative separation.<br />III - Anaxagoras falls between the Milesian desire to explain the world as the natural given processes, and the new inclination implicit, perhaps, in Xenophanes and Heraclitus to see it as planned.<br /><br />Diogenes of Apollonia (5th century BCE)<br /><br />I - Opens his book on human physiology with a cosmology.<br />II - Argues that the balanced arrangement of the seasons must be the work of intelligence.<br />III - Identifies this intelligence with air, which he regards as the single substance from which all others derived. Everything that breaths air partakes of intelligence.</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Eleatic Philosophers:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Paramenides, Zeno of Elea, Melissus of Samos<br /><br />I - Argued that the universe was single and unified in space, time and substance.<br />II - Argued against change and motion.<br />III - The divorce between the philosophers’ "reality" and the real world of experience could not be more complete.<br />IV - But the concept of an unchanging reality beyond the material world survived through Plato.<br /><br />Paramenides (c. 515-c. 445 BCE)<br /><br />I - Only Being can exist.<br />II - Being is finite and spherical.<br />III - There is no creation or destruction, because these imply non-being.<br />IV - Thus Reality consists of indivisible, changeless, featureless, motionless, rock-solid BEING.<br />V- The phenomenal world with its color, movement, change and impermanence must be a sham.<br />VI - But it is a sham with a pattern, and Paramenides offers this analysis of the illusion:<br />a) The diversity of the universe is rooted in the basic duality of light and dark, each of which subsumes a range of other qualities. These qualities, because they do not reconcile with the nature of Being, are ultimately false.<br /><br />Zeno of Elea (fl. c. 450 BCE)<br /><br />I - Reinforces the case against plurality in nature with arguments and paradoxes of a mathematical nature: The paradox of <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VI6UdOUg0kg&feature=related">Achilles and the Tortoise</a>.<br /><br />Melissus of Samos (fl. 440 BCE)<br /><br />I - Being is infinite in extent, and is incorporeal; otherwise it would have parts, implying plurality.</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Atomists:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Leucippus of Miletus, Democritus<br /><br />Leucippus of Miletus (fl. 450-420 BCE)<br /><br />I - Non-being (empty space) exists just as much as Being.<br />II - He reduces matter to minute particles which are indivisible (atoma), indestructible, and qualitatively neutral. The differ from one another only in shape and orientation.<br />III - Different rearrangements of atoms produce changeable qualities such as color, heat, hardness, form, etc.<br />IV - There is no guiding intelligence, just the blind mechanical interplay of flying and colliding atoms.<br /><br />Democritus (c. 460-371 BCE)<br /><br />I - Appropriates the atomist system to serve as a background for his account of the origin and development of civilization.<br />II - Primitive man was merely an animal, sheltering in caves and eating whatever grew wild, until gradually he developed skills, built houses and cities, tamed animals, invented language, and so on.</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">SOPHISTS:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Protagoras of Abdera, Gorgias<br /><br />Protagoras of Abdera (c. 485 BCE. 415 BCE)<br /><br />I - Greatest of the Sophists, teacher of rhetoric and politics: Lectured on a range of philosophical and technical subjects, and charged admission.<br />II - Topics included:<br />a) Nature vs. custom.<br />b) Morality.<br />c) Education.<br />d) The scientific treatment of subjects like grammar, meter, music, and rhetoric.<br />III - Demonstrated the adaptability of argument to support any conclusion; or either of two opposite conclusions.<br />IV - "Man is the measure of all things."<br /><br />Gorgias (of Leontini, in Sicily) (c. 483-c. 376 BCE)<br /><br />I - Important figure in the history of rhetoric.<br />II - Stressed the subjective and relative aspects of opinion and knowledge.<br />III - Published a lengthy proof that nothing exists.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">CLASSIC GREEK PHILOSOPHY</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /><br />Socrates (469-399 BCE)<br /><br />I –Wrote nothing.<br />II - Represents intellectuality, exquisite taste, immense vitality, mind and spirit in balance--Socrates was Plato’s Greek superman.<br />III – Important matters weren’t scientific, but instead Socrates represents a dedication to learning and the discovery of the Truth.<br />IV - Object of Socrates questions (from Plato’s dialogues) was to establish a definition: Virtue, Courage, Temperance, the “Good Life.” However, rather than discovering hard and fixed definitions, Socrates instead established the ignorance of the person he was debating. Socrates demonstrated the vanity and the ignorance of those who sought to force narrow and credulous definitions upon society and the community.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">V - </span></span><a href="http://www.ditext.com/robinson/dia2.html"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Elenchus</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: Socrates' method of questioning, scrutinizing, and refuting. (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_elenchus#Method">Wiki article</a>).</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Plato</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (427-347 BCE)<br /><br />I – Founder of the Academy.<br />II – Plato separated the ordinary world and its contents from the supposed otherworld of “intelligible” entities—timeless and unchanging forms, which are the true objects of the philosopher’s contemplation.<br />III – Early dialogues: Emphasize Socratic inquiry—Socratic dialectic. No direct “message.” We are made aware of a problem, and of the need for argument and thought as tools to gain further understanding--a continuous and continuing process.<br />IV - Middle and Late dialogues: Long, undramatic, didactic.</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">V - In The Republic, does Plato describe a <a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2021/01/woof.html" target="_blank">Utopia or a Dystopia</a>?<br />VI - Does the Republic advance <i>Justice </i>as a criterion for moral and poetical philosophy?</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">VII - Plato's Theory of Forms.<br />VII - Plato's thoughts on <i>Eudemonia</i>.</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">VIII - Plato and the Middle Ages.<br /><br />Aristotle (384-322 BCE)</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br />I – Nothing otherworldly; Aristotle is concerned with Man’s place in the world. <a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2018/02/ariostle-and-meaning-of-eudaimonia.html"><i>But...</i></a><br />II – “Forms” are the proper objects of the highest knowledge. But they are not independent or separable from the things of this world. Forms are inseparable from the object they are part of. The material something is made of can’t be distinguished from its particular form. Form can’t exist without matter, and matter can’t exist without form.<br />III – “Form” is defined as the form some object has, and is not itself a separately existing thing.<br />IV – Plato was right in the sense that definition is “of the form.” (Socrates attached importance to exact definition.)<br />V – Aristotle and Science<br />1) Organization of systematic, comparative research, consisting in an accumulation of facts about the world.<br />2) Conceptual Approach: Aristotle employed general categories, forms of classification: types of explanation that properly serve as the basis for factual research.<br />3) Aristotle understood natural objects and phenomena in terms of purpose, for the sake of an end, to fulfill an aim. Thus fire “rises” to achieve an aim. Plants grow in order to achieve a full-grown state. Aristotle was confused here.<br />VI – Logic: Aristotle employed </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">deduction</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Not flawed but limited. True science and scientific procedure is non-deductive, inductive, and skeptical-empirical.<br /></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: large;">VII - Aristotle on Plato's Theory of Forms.</span><br style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: large;" /><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: large;">VIII - Aristotle's thoughts on </span><span style="font-size: large;"><i style="font-family: "times new roman";">Eudemonia</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: times new roman; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;">IX - Aristotle, Scholasticism and the Renaissance.</span><br /></span><br />
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<a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2017/12/higbrow-creed-or-on-road-to-eudemonia.html">Good advice from Aristotle</a><br />
<a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Aristotle and Ethics</span></span></a><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2018/02/ariostle-and-meaning-of-eudaimonia.html">Aristotle and Eudemonia</a> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2019/02/highbrow-advice-from-aristotle.html">Aristotle and the middle class</a></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2021/02/plato-and-aristotle-two-key-distinctions.html" target="_blank">Plato and Aristotle: Two Key Distinctions</a><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/timeline/aristotle/" target="_blank">Timeline</a><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Sources: </span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Oxford History of the Classical World: Greece and the Hellenistic World</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Oxford Classical Dictionary<br />Penguin Dictionary of Philsophy</span></span></i><br />
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<span style="color: #3d85c6;"><span style="font-size: large;">Philosophy of the Hellenistic World and the Roman Empire </span></span><br />
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></i> </div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Reading:</b><br /> Kenny: 91-108</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Osborne: 22-32</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Penguin<br /><span style="color: #f3f3f3;">Robin</span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="color: #f3f3f3;">son: 36-40</span><br />Supplemental Reading:</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="color: #f3f3f3;">Oxford: 36-53, 286-291</span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br />Lucian of Samosata (A.D. 125 - after A.D. 180): </span></span><i><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OmxiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA449&lpg=PA449&dq=Lucian+Sale+of+Philosophies&source=bl&ots=5bfMY2h2F3&sig=XXnHkS8TnuCIFXuFxl4RVnJe0vU&hl=en&ei=BwDFSpuXD4em8AaUh6g5&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=Lucian%20Sale%20of%20Philosophies&f=false"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Philosophies for Sale</span></span></a></i> <br />
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><a href="http://books.google.com/books?id=OmxiAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA449&lpg=PA449&dq=Lucian+Sale+of+Philosophies&source=bl&ots=5bfMY2h2F3&sig=XXnHkS8TnuCIFXuFxl4RVnJe0vU&hl=en&ei=BwDFSpuXD4em8AaUh6g5&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3#v=onepage&q=Lucian%20Sale%20of%20Philosophies&f=false"></a></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b>Terms:</b></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Epicureanism</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Stoicism</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Cynicism</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Skepticism</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Neo-Platonism</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: xx-small;"><span class="Apple-style-span"> </span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Early Christianity</span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span></span></span><br />Notes:<br /><br />GREEK AND ROMAN PHILOSOPHY AFTER ARISTOTLE<br /><br />EPICURIANISM<br /><br />I - Rooted in atomism and the teachings of Aristippus.<br />II - "Natural law" and "necessity" are rooted in the motions of the atoms that make up the cosmos.<br />III - The only "legitimate" knowledge is of atoms and the void. Knowledge which comes through the senses is "bastard." Atoms and the void are not accessible to the senses, thus opinions about phenomena perceived by the senses may be misplaced or misdirected. Sense experiences--hot, cold, color--are "conventions," the "truth" is in atoms and the void.<br />IV - Mind and soul are the same, and are located in especially "fiery" atoms distributed throughout the body. Everything is throwing off "idols" or "effluences" which make contact with the soul atoms, and produce sensations.<br />V - Everything has a mechanical cause in the atoms of the void.<br />VI - Only pleasure (living well) is good.<br /><br />Leucippus (450 - 420 BCE)<br />a) Atomism.<br /><br />Democritus (460 - 431 BCE)<br />a) Atomism.<br />b) Assumes free will to exist, and promotes a doctrine of "cheerfulness" as being the aim of a good life: contentment, balance, undismayed attitude.<br /><br />Aristippus of Cyrene (435 - 355 BCE)<br />a) Cyrenaic School: Pleasure and enjoyment of the present moment is the greatest good.<br /><br />Epicurus (351 - 270 BCE)<br />a) Taught in the "Garden" in Athens. Admitted men and women, freeman and slave.<br />b) Sought to free people from fear and pain.<br />c) Hedonist: Only pleasure was good. Pleasure is the absence of pain.<br />d) Two types of pleasure: 1) Catastematic: underlying harmonious state of body or mind. 2) Kinetic: alterations of mental or physical states.<br />e) Ataraxia: well-being of he mind, or freedom from disturbance.<br />f) Virtue, goodness, justice, etc, were explained in terms of enlightened self interest. People were taught to be virtuous to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.<br />g) Sought to liberate people from fear of the gods and fear of death.<br />h) Atomism explains away such fear: "Death is nothing to us." The gods are built up images from another world far away. The gods are unconcerned with us. There is no divine providence or rationality governing the universe.<br />i) Atomic swerve: Generates interactions leading to the formation of the world.<br />j) Political and social commitments bring trouble, thus Epicureans avoided political life, marriage and child-rearing, and advocated </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">lathe biosas</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">, "get through life unnoticed."<br />k) Epicureans were not pure hedonists. They avoided pain as much as they pursued pleasure: advocated simple diet, simple pleasures, do nothing that will bring remorse. Aims were frugal living, friendship, conversation, and even the contemplation of the gods who, wisely, have nothing to do with humanity.<br /><br />Lucretius (95 - 54 BCE)<br />a) Lucretius's poem </span></span><i><a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.html"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">On the Nature of Things</span></span></a></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> provides an accurate account of Epicurus' doctrine.</span></span> </div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br />STOICISM<br /><br />I - Most influential of the post-Aristotelian schools.<br />II - Characterized by vehement affirmation rather than argument.<br />III - Three divisions of Stoic doctrine: Logical, Physical, Ethical.<br />IV - Logic: Cases occur in which all doubt is out of the question.<br />V - Physical: Minds, gods, objects, qualities of objects, human minds, even emotions are all corporeal bodies. Monistic: there is only one "substance," one </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">phusis</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">, underlying all phenomena, and this </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">phusis</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> is referred to by the name of God, and identified with Reason. Everything serves a rational purpose. The universe emerged from a "divine fire" or cosmic conflagration to which it will return again, and the birth and death of the universe will repeat itself in identical cycles forever.<br />VI - Ethics: Most important part of Stoic doctrine. Stoics seek to attain peace, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">apatheia</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">. We are at peace when we have what we want: therefore we should: 1) attempt to get what we want, or 2) attempt to want (or accept) what we have (Stoics pursued #2). Stoics avoided stirring their emotions or appetites. The only good was virtue, the only evil vice, which are defined by either the right or wrong disposition of the will. The will is wholly and unalterably under the control of the individual, so that the true good is wholly within the power of the individual. Everything that does not fall within the sphere of absolute control is to be regarded with indifference, including pain, pleasure, disappointment, and so on.<br />VII - Ethics Part II: The individual could choose "to act in accordance with nature." 1) Justifiably seek the fulfillment of "natural" human instincts. 2) Since mankind was "naturally" one family, the good Stoic should seek to serve his fellow man. Each man is assigned by Nature his particular role in the drama of existence; and it is fitting and "natural" for us all to play his part to the best of his ability--though at the same time being indifferent to the outcomes of his role. The idea was to arrive at virtue by playing the role one is assigned. Virtue--playing one's role--is what is of value. Everything else--what happens in the world--is unimportant as far as the individual is concerned, because everything that occurs has its place in Nature's grand design. Acceptance of all that occurs is the only rational attitude. Indignation, regret, fear, hope, anxiety are all foolish and unjustifiable feelings, for all these feelings rest on the idea that the natural course of events could be, or could have been, other than what it is, has been, or will be.<br />VIII - Criticism: Do the Stoics achieve "peace," or rather a sort of radical indifference and "apathy"? See Lucian, page 489: "These things are not in our control, and all that is not in our control is immaterial."<br /><br />Zeno of Citium (332 - 265 BCE)<br />a) Student of Diogenes<br /><br />Chrysippus (280 - 206 BCE)<br /><br />Panaetius of Rhodes (185 - 110 BCE)<br />a) Introduced Stoicism to Rome.<br />b) Virtue lies in human co-operation rather than the attainment of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">apatheia</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (a sort of apathy). Rejected the radical theory if virtue and replaced it with acting rightly.<br />c) Rejected the idea of recurring cosmic conflagration, soothsaying, and astrology.<br /><br />Seneca (5 BCE- AD 65)<br /><br />Epictetus (55 - 135)<br />a) Lived in Rome as a slave, later became free.<br />b) Attempted to revive the early teachings of Zeno.<br />c) But goes further than Zeno, who would at least conceed that some things could be preferable to others: Better to be healthy than sick; wealth was better than poverty. For Epiceteus,the only rational goal was to be master of one's experience through control of the will and the elimination of all feeling whatever.<br />d) Tolerance of the shortcomings of others; good humor in spite of affliction.<br /><br />Marcus Aurelius (121 - 180)<br />a) Emperor of Rome. He taught philosophy in public assemblies.<br />b) Early studies were in law and rhetoric; took up philosophy, and abandoned Latin to write in Greek. Recorded his philosophy in his </span></span><i><a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Antoninus/meditations.html"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Meditations</span></span></a></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">, some of which was written in the harsh conditions of a military camp during northern warfare against the Germans.<br />a) Both more ascetic and more human than the traditional stoic, the Aurelian stoic was required to be different:<br />1) A traditional Stoic would have regarded the material trappings of civilization with indifference. Marcus Aurelius was instead regarded them as repulsive. Not merely independent of worldly goods, he rejected them.<br />2) Frequent concession to human feelings.<br />d) Observe one's own feelings and actions with the same coolness and detachment as one observes the feelings and actions of others.<br /><br />SKEPTICISM<br /><br />Pyrrho of Elis (360 - 272 BCE)<br /><br />Cicero (106 - 43 BCE)<br />a) Academic Skepticism<br /><br />Aenesidemus (1st Century BCE)<br /><br />Sextus Empiricus (150 - 225)<br /><br />CYNICS<br /><br />Antisthenes (445 - 360 BCE)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Diogenes</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> of Sinope (400 - 325 BCE)<br /><br />NEO-PLATONISM<br /><br />Plotinus (205 - 70 BCE)<br />a) Mind (nous)--thought thinking itself, “the one” or “the good”: forms are contemplated in unity in a timeless way.<br />b) Soul (psyche): forms are contemplated separately and successively: space and time.<br />c) Nature (physis): forms are seen in a dream-like way, and which projects dreams as the material world.<br />d) The universe is a process of successive emanations:<br /><br />Nous<br />↓<br />Psyche<br />↓<br />Physis<br /><br /><br />e) A human being is the microcosm of a process of successive emanations:<br /><br />The ONE, the GOD<br />↓<br />The Spirit<br />↓<br />The Soul<br />↓<br />Matter & Nature<br /><br />1. Body/Matter/Nature—are farthest from the ONE, and are thus the most formless, shapeless and imperfect things.<br />5. “The supreme achievement of the intellect is to leave itself behind.”<br /><br />Source Material:</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span></i><br />
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Oxford History of the Classical World: Greece and the Hellenistic World</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Oxford Classical Dictionary</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br /></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><br />Richard Osborne</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">. Philosophy for Beginners</span></span></i></div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-3835618001286109022015-12-29T12:52:00.003-05:002022-10-15T20:07:02.409-04:00Medieval Philosophy and Scholasticism<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b>R<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">eading:</span></b></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Osborne: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">33-57</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kenny: 109-181</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Penguin: <span style="font-family: "times new roman";">as appropriate</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ffffcc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Robinson: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">40-47</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Oxford:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> 55-105, 291-306</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Supplemental Viewing:</span></span></span></div>
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<i><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qS0Z932WVgc&feature=PlayList&p=1871A261DBC746EC&index=0&playnext=1"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Name of the Rose</span></span></a></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Terms:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Augustine (354-430)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Muhammad (570-632)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Abelard (1079-1144)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Maimonides (1135-1204)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p>Roger Bacon (1215-1292)</o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">William of Ockham (1285-1349)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Notes:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Heaven</span></span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Judaism:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Restricted Heaven to a realm where initially the gods (and later God) dwell. No belief in life with God after death—only the end of the biblical period.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">‘olam ha-zeh </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">–the world as it is.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">‘olam ha-ba</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> --the world to come. Associated with the messiah and a world in which peace and plenty were to be restored as a historical process.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">These distinctions were transplanted into Christian and Islamic notions of Heaven.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Christianity:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Heaven is the domain of God, the angels, and ultimately all the redeemed, where they will receive eternal reward. Catholics: souls pass through purgatory to be purified, and then go to heaven to await resurrection.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Islam:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Janna</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">--“garden”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Firdaws</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">—“paradise”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Also called “gardens of delight” and “gardens of Eden”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Details mentioned in the Koran include: the gates of paradise, its size, gardens, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Huris </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">(creatures of brilliant eyes and beautiful form), special gates for those who have practiced various forms of piety, such as fasting. Those who die in battle for Islam are assured immediate entry.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">CHRISTIANITY--RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHERS – SCHOLASTICISM<br /></span></span></b><h1 class="style-scope ytd-watch-metadata"><span style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iVlq6joL_uI" target="_blank">Medieval Philosophy - Bryan Magee & Anthony Kenny (1987) Video</a></span><br /></h1><br /></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Christianity</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">A) Contributing traditions and factors:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Manichees, Gnostics, Paul, Gospels, Christ, Essenes, Maccabees, Hellenisation, Jewish Diaspora, Jewish Captivity, Pentateuch (or “Torah,” the first five books of the Old Testament, Prophets, Moses, Plotinus and Neo-Platonism, Christian Platonists, Stoics, Cynics and Skeptics, Aristotle, Plato, Pythagoreans, Pre-Socratics, Orphic Mysticism.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) The "end" of philosophical thought: By the year 300, Huns, Goths and Vandals wreck the Roman Empire. From the fall of Rome until the Renaissance, “free thought” was possible only if it was “Christian free thought.” </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Hypatia, female professor of philosophy (Neo-Platonist) in Alexandria is murdered by a fanatical Christian mob at the instigation of their clergy in the year 415. Footnote to history: religion had replaced thought.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: medium;">B) <a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+17%3A16-34&version=ESV">Paul in Athens</a>. Acts 17:16-34</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">C) Edward Gibbons five reasons for the rise of Christianity:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) The inflexible and intolerant zeal of the Christians—inherited from Judaism.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) The idea of life after death (a future reward).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) The miraculous powers ascribed to the Primitive Church (aided by superstition and hysterical reactions to natural disasters).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) The pure and austere morals of the early Christians, which was very unusual at the time.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">5) Unity and discipline of the developing Christian republic, which became a state-within-a-state in the Roman Empire.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Council of Nicea (325) unified the Christian Church: "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed">Nicene Creed</a>.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Four Fathers (or Doctors) of the Church:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) St. Ambrose: Roman lawyer who became Bishop of Milan (340-397). Taught the spiritual (and temporal) supremacy of the Church over the State.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) St. Jerome: a) set up monasteries, which became an imperfect force for consolidating the Church’s power. b) Translated the Bible into Latin: The Vulgate (original texts were written in Hebrew: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Torah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">; and Greek: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Septuagint</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Gregory The Great (540-604, Pope 590-604).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">increased papal authority.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">enforced rules for clergy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">sponsored missionary expeditions.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) St. Augustine (354-604):</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Augustine (354 - 430)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Only “father” who could be described as a philosopher. Combines “old knowledge” and philosophy with new Christian belief.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Old knowledge: Rhetoric and Logic, Stoicism, Plotinus and neo-platonism, Skepticism of the late Academy, Aristotle, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism">Manichean</a>, <a href="http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~sbriggs/Britannica/manichaeism.htm">2</a> sect.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Confessions</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Spiritual autobiography discussing sin at length. Key point: Individual can sin, but the true Church, as an institution of God, could not.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Saw his conversion as a humbling of his intellectual pride & the dissolution of his will to the will of God. Faith + Reason.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Theology:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) God is eternal and therefore outside of time. God has always existed in an Everlasting Present, which leads Augustine to conclude: Only the </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">present</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> truly exists. The </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">past</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> only exists as a </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">present</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> memory, and the </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">future</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> exists only as a </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">present</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> expectation.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) God divides everyone up as either </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">elect</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> or </span></span><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">reprobate</span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">City of God</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Proposes two cities: 1) the City of God; 2) the City of the Devil. The City of God could only be known through the “infallible authority of the Church.” The state had to obey the Church if it wanted to part of the City of God.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) In opposition to the Manicheans, who believed Evil, like Good, was an active principle, Augustine taught that God and all God created is essentially good. Evil is the absence of the good that ought to be.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Moral Evil is a consequence of freewill.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Physical evil results from imperfection.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Fall, Original Sin, Predestination</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Man’s original endowment was lost by the fall of Adam, and we all suffer because of Adam’s sin.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) The human race is/can only be saved by the grace of God and not through Good Works, as the Pelagians argued. (Pelagianism: a person can come to salvation by his or her own efforts apart from God’s Grace; or in co-operation with Grace.)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Since God knows what he intends to do, Augustine is a predestinarian, which will influence Calvin and other Reformers (Luther was an Augustinian monk).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Boethius (480-524)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Boethius intended to translate Plato and Aristotle but was executed before he could get very far with this work. Emperor Theodoric condemned Boethius to his death. Boethius had wanted to turn Theodoric into Plato’s “Philosopher-King.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Consolation of Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Written in prison. Boethius does not find consolation in Christian belief, but instead in his guardian “Philosophy” who appears in his prison cell and promises to “lead him to true happiness.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages_%28historiography%29">DARK AGES</a> vs. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages">MIDDLE AGES</a></span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Charlemagne (c. 742-814)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Crowned Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas day, 800. Charlemagne wanted to:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Recreate the imperial rule of the Casesars.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Build St. Augustine’s City of God.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">THE MUSLIM WORLD</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mohamed (570-632)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Arab Philosophers</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kindi</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Translated Plotinus’ “Ennends” and called it </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Philosophy of Aristotle</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Avicenna (980-1036)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Created a synthesis of Islam, Plato & Aristotle.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Wrote of medicine and psychology.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Had passions for wine, women and travel</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Wrote an encyclopedia that was widely read in the West.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Invented a new Aristotelian phrase: “Thought brings about the generality of forms.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) Argued that the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">essence</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> of God entails/necessitates his existence. The “Self-evident Argument.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Averroës (1126-1198)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Lived in Cordova until he was exiled by the Caliph.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Gave Aristotle the status of a prophet.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Argued (as Aquinas would later) that God’s existence could be proven by reason alone.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Argued, like Aristotle, against the immortality of the soul.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Moses Maimonides (1135-1204)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Jewish philosopher who worked as court physician in Egypt.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Wrote: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Guide for the Perplexed</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">. Resolved philosophy and faith by showing how scripture could be interpreted both literally and spiritually.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Wrote commentary on the Mishnah: commentary on the Torah, or </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Mishneh Torah</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (The repetition of the Law).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) “All Attributes ascribed to God are attributes of his acts, and do not imply that God has any qualities.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">SCHOLASTICISM</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Emerges in 11</span></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">th</span></span></sup><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> century.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Represented growing strength in learning and culture, and the newfound interest in ancient philosophy, especially Aristotle.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) New orders of monks appeared that worked like reforming political parties within the Church.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) What is Scholasticism?</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) An acceptance of the prevailing Catholic orthodoxy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Within this orthodoxy, as acceptance of Aristotle as a greater thinker than Plato.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) A recognition that Aristotle and Plato disagreed about the notions of universals—and that this was a vital question to resolve.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) Gave prominence to “dialectical” thinking and syllogistic (deductive) reasoning.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">5) An acceptance of the distinction between “natural” and “revealed” theology (reflecting an older distinction between reason and revelation).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">6) A tendency to dispute everything at length (some people call it wordplay, but it was an important training ground for the dialectic that was to emerge during the Renaissance).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Peter Abelard (1079-1142)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Brought the dialectic back into fashion. The dialectic—apart from the Scriptures—was the road to the truth, and was good for the mind.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Wrote on Logic and Ethics.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) God can act and refrain from acting only in the manner and at the time that he actually does act and refrain from acting, and in no other way.” This implies of course that there are things God can’t do, like change the past, or change his own actions. (See St. Peter Damien)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Anselem (1093-1109)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Archbishop of Canterbury.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Last philosopher to remain in the Platonic tradition.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Proslogian</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: Developed the “Ontological Argument” for God’s existence. The very </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">concept</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> of God proves that he exists.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">On the Grammarian</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: reflected on the interface between grammar and logic.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Cur Deus Homo</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> (Why God Became Man).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Peter Damien (1007-1072)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">On Devine Omnipotence</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: argued against the dialectic, and claimed that God could do anything—even change the past.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">St. Bonaventure (c. 1217-1274)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Franciscan monk.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b)</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> The Journey of the Mind in God.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Mystical theory of knowledge. All human wisdom was folly in comparison to the mystical illumination God sheds on the faithful Christian. Bonaventure favors revealed knowledge over reason.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Aristocratic Italian who became a Dominican monk.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Like Aristotle, tried to organize all branches of knowledge into a system. Writings:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Summa contra Gentiles</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Summa Theologiae</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) His full system would become the approved philosophy of the Church. The purpose of his system was to put to rest some heated and divisive debates taking place in the monasteries. At the heart of his system lies the distinction between Natural Theology and Revealed Theology.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Natural Theology: Activity of reason from sense experience.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Revealed Theology: Activity of reason from faith, divine grace, and the scriptures.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) But rather than putting the debates to rest, the overlap of these two areas produced yet more problems….</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Aquinas’ system shattered the identity of:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) God and the World.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Knowledge and Reality.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Faith and Reason.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) Meanwhile: Taken at face value, Aquinas proved the importance of Christianity and the existence of God, rejecting the 1) Self-Evident Argument; and 2) Ontological Argument.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">g) Aquinas’ five arguments for the existence of God (</span></span><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinquae_viae"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Quinque viae</span></span></a></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">):</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Argument from Change</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: Change is everywhere. Someone causes it---so there </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">must</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> be a God like Aristotle’s “</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Unmoved Mover</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Argument form Causation</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: Who causes </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">causes</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">? Is there a first cause, itself uncaused? There is. God is the original </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Uncaused Cause</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Argument from Contingency</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: How do we account for contingency in nature? Only by a </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Necessary Being</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> beyond contingency.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Argument from Degrees of Excellence</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: We notice degrees of excellence in nature. This implies the notion of perfection, which in turn implies what we might call a </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Perfect Being</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">5) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Argument form Harmony</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">: Everywhere we look is “adaptation” or “accord.” Fish need to swim so they have fins and tails. Dogs need to chew bones so they have strong teeth. These are evidence of design—the manifestation (evidence/existence) of an </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Intelligence</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> that organizes things.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">OTHER SCHOLASTICS—EMERGING EMPIRICISM AND COMMON SENSE</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Roger Bacon (1214-1294)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Wrote on geography, alchemy, mathematics, perspective.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Suggested one could learn from the heathen, in particular Arabs.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Was thrown into prison for 14 years for openly attacking clerical ignorance.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Four causes of ignorance:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Appeals to an unsuited authority.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) The undue influence of custom.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) The opinions of the unlearned crowd.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) Displays of wisdom that simply covered up ignorance.</span></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Duns Scotus (1270-1308)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Held there were three classes of things that can be known without proof:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Principles known by themselves.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Things known by experience.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Our actions themselves.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">William of Ockham (1290-1349)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Argued for more democracy and less secular (governing/state) power for the church. 1328 is excommunicated.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Embroiled in an argument between the Fransciscans and Pope John XXII.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) The historical question whether Christ and the Apostles had lived in absolute poverty (this argument is portrayed in </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">The Name of The Rose</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) The practical question of ownership of property by contemporary Franciscans.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Fled from Avignon to Munich and the protection of Holy Roman Emperor, Ludwig of Bavaria, where according to legend Ockham said: “Emperor, defend me with your sword and I will defend you with my pen.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Contributions to Logic:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Logic is the analysis of scientific terms.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) William treats universals and is concerned with terms and concepts, not physical states. Draws a distinction between the language of science and actual science.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Shows that science itself is about things; clarifies the difference between things and the language we use to talk about things.</span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Set the philosophical stage for the collapse of the Medieval system.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ockham’s Razor:</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> The explanation of any given fact should appeal to the smallest number of factors required to explain the fact in question: “It is futile to do with more what can be done with fewer” or “plurality should not be assumed without necessity.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Marsilius</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Defender of the Peace</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Argued for Separation of church and State</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Argued for separation/balance of powers: Executive and legislative branches of government.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">John Wycliffe (1320-1384)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Professor at Oxford.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Righteousness alone conferred the right to property and power; therefore, corrupt, rich ecclesiastics (Bishops) had no right to property and power (Wycliffe was providing reasons for the king to take the Church’s property, and later Henry VIII would do just that).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Christ and his apostles had no property; therefore, the clergy should not have any either.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) English government of course liked the idea and protected Wycliffe. The bishops tried to condemn Wycliffe at a trial, but Henry and the masses protected him.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) The king was God’s vicar and therefore the church should be subject to the king.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) The church should concentrate on spiritual matters.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">g) And, moreover, the Pope was the Anti-Christ!</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">h) Wycliffe translated the Vulgate (Latin Bible) into English.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Sources: </span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</span></span></i><br />
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</span></span></i><br />
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Oxford Dictionary of World Religions</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-style: normal; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span></span></i><br />
<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #333333; font-style: normal; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Richard Osborne</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">. Philosophy for Beginners</span></span></i></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><br /></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-26564282777164287362015-12-29T12:47:00.006-05:002022-08-24T09:57:18.583-04:00Renaissance and Reformation<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reading: </span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Osborne: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">57-68</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Kenny: 182-205</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">as appropriate</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f3f3f3;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Robinson </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">48-53</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f3f3f3;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Oxford:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 30613</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Terms: </span></span></span></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Machiavelli (1469-1527)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Erasmus (1466-1536)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">More (1478-1535)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Luther (1483-1546)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Calvin (1509-1564)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rabelais (1483?-1559?)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">William Shakespeare (1564-1616)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Francis Bacon (1561-1616)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Notes:</span></span></b></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> T</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">HE RENSAISANCE (1440-1540)</span></span></span></o:p></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) Rich princes, new buildings and palaces</span></span></o:p></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) New realism in art (perspective, form)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Original Greek manuscripts rediscovered</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Interest in antiquities</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) New inventions and technology</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Mining</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Plumbing</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Metallurgy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Printing press</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) A new culture</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Capitalist in economy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Classical in art and literature</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Scientific in approach to nature</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Renaissance, Continued….</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Political Philosophy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Machiavelli </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Technological advances</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Printing</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Revival of classical studies</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Literature</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Philosophy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Architecture</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) Advances in the sciences of painting</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) "The Renaissance Man"</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) Formation of the sciences</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Alchemy becomes chemistry</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Astrology becomes astronomy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Systematic study of anatomy</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) In science, direct experience more important than authority</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8) Exploration</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Diaz DaGama</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Columbus</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Magellan</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">9) Humanistic critiques of Medievalism</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Erasmus (1466-1536) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Praise of Folly</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Utopia</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Francois Rabelais: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Gargantua and Pantagruel</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Critique of law, medicine, and the church.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">THE REFORMATION</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Luther">1) Martin Luther (1483-1546)</a></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Rooted in the writings of Augustine (he was an Augustinian monk) and William of Ockham.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Backward looking, but nonetheless revolutionary.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Luther publishes </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">95 Theses</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1517) attack church corruption</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Central doctrine was justification through faith and not through works.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Held the authority of the Bible to be supreme over church tradition.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Priests were reviled: celibacy, the paraphernalia of Purgatory, masses, robes, graven images, and Papal indulgences.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Predestination, St. Paul's notion of sin.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">h) Man's terrible predicament could only be solved by faith, not reason.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Insisted men must obey their rulers.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin">2) John Calvin (1509-1564)</a></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Geneva--created a theocratic city-state based on his </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Institutions of the Christian Religion.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Predestination was a central doctrine.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">c) Civil life was organized in an egalitarian way.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;">d) Influenced Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and the "Pilgrim Fathers" in America.</span></div>
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<a href="http://www.calvinistcorner.com/tulip.htm"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">TULIP: The Five Points of Calvinism</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; border-spacing: 0px;"></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">T</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">otal Depravity (also known as Total Inability and Original Sin)</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Unconditional Election </span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Limited Atonement (also known as Particular Atonement)</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Irresistible Grace</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 23px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Perseverance of the Saints (also known as Once Saved Always Saved)</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 23px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; border-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span>5) Zwingli (1484-1531) Establishes theocratic city-state in Zurich.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) John Knox (1505-1572)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">First Trumpet Blast Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1558)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Counter-Reformation</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Spanish, ex-soldier, formed the Society of Jesus (The Jesuits) along military lines. The Jesuits possessed remarkable discipline, and produced strenuous fighters of heresy (the inquisition), vigorous missionaries, and created the best schools in Christendom.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">MACHIAVELLI (1469-1527)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Interested in political power: how to get it, keep it, and use it.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Unlike Medieval Philosophers, made no attempt to bring God into his thinking. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) He pointed out that pretending to be pious was a good thing to keep the masses happy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Secular, scientific basis of modern political philosophy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) The Prince: In a corrupt world a strong leader (a dictator) was necessary:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Viewing the corruption around him, Machiavelli came to the conclusion that in politics the means of achieving things had to be corrupt also: Any means is acceptable so long as it is effective.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) A strong ruler must:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">i. Possess a double-standard of behavior.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ii. Be a fox and a lion.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">iii. Be a great feigner and dissembler.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) The Discourses: Machiavelli argues that a republic with a democratic constitution would be the best form of government.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Important goals for a nation include:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">i. Independence</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ii. Security</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">iii. Well-ordered constitution</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon">F<span class="Apple-style-span">rancis Bacon (1561-1626)</span></a></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon"> </a></span></span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11.11px; font-weight: normal;"></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Francis Bacon: Abstract Necessities and Four Idols</span></span></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Francis Bacon observed that human beings have a tendency to draw the separate facts, particulars, and events of experience into abstract necessities, general laws, and "natural" mechanisms. According to Bacon in Aphorism 45 from Book I of the <i>Novum </i></span></span></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Organum</span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">:</span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The human understanding is of its own nature prone to suppose the existence of more order and regularity in the world than it finds. And though there be many things in nature which are singular and unmatched, yet it devises for them parallels and conjugates and relatives which do not exist. Hence the fiction that all celestial bodies move in perfect circles, spirals and dragons being (except in name) utterly rejected.Hence too the element of fire with its orb is brought in, to make up the square with the other three which the sense perceives.Hence also the ratio of density of the so-called elements is arbitrarily fixed at ten to one.And so on of other dreams.And these fancies affect not dogmas only, but simple notions also. (50)</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">In Aphorisms 39 through 44 of <i>The </i></span></span></span></span></span></b></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><i>Novum </i></span></span></span></span></span></b></span>Organum</i>, Bacon defines four classes of "idols" which he says "beset men's minds."These four distinctions Bacon calls, first, Idols of the Tribe; second, Idols of the Cave; third, Idols of the Marketplace; fourth, Idols of the Theater.</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Tribe, says Bacon, "have their foundation in human nature itself . . . [H]uman understanding is like a false mirror, which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolors the nature of things by mingling its own nature with it." Our understanding is distorted by our own animal nature.</span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Cave "are the idols of the individual man . . . [M]en look for sciences in their own lesser worlds [--according to their personal nature, the books they read, their education, the friendship and authority of those whom they esteem and admire--] and not in the greater or common world." Our understanding is distorted by our upbringing, through the association of our families and close friends.</span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Market are "formed by the intercourse and association of men with each other."Because of this association, <span style="color: #cc0000;">language is often distorted "according to the apprehension of the vulgar.And therefore the ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the understanding."Learned men are often in error in their definitions and explanations because "words plainly force and overrule the understanding, and throw all into confusion, and lead men away into numberless empty controversies and idle fancies." Our understanding is distorted by where we work and who we work with.</span></span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Theatre are "various dogmas of philosophies, and also the wrong laws of demonstration."These various dogmas are "entire systems . . . principles and axioms in science, which by tradition, credulity, and negligence have come to be received."The demonstrations and proofs for these systems are like "so many stage plays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion." </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"> Our understanding is distorted by the language and orientations of various schools, academies, the sciences and the professions.</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Bacon, Francis. </span></span></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Novum Organum</span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">. New York: Liberal Arts Press. 1960. (47-50).</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; text-align: left;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 11.11px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></span></span></span></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif">New Link: </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><a href="https://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2020/04/using-logic-to-prove-propositions.html"><span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif">Using Logic to Prove Propositions</span></span></a></b></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Richard Osborne. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophy for Beginners </span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: italic;"><a href="http://www.calvinistcorner.com/tulip.htm"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Calvinist Corner</span></span></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Study Guide for the Midterm.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">Terms:</span><br />
<br />
<b>What is Philosophy?<br />Fields in Philosophy</b><br />
<b>Technocracy<br />
Pre-Socratic Philosophy<br />
Sophists<br /><strike>
Pericles (490-429)</strike><br />
Socrates (470-399)<br />
Plato (428-348)<br />
Aristotle (384-322)</b></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;"><i><b>Eudemonia </b></i><br />
<b>
</b><b>Epicureanism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Stoicism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Cynicism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Skepticism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Neo-Platonism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>St. Augustine (354-430)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Abelard (1079-1144)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Maimonides (1135-1204)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Scholasticism </b><br />
<b>
</b><b>St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Roger Bacon (1215-1292)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>William of Ockham (1285-1349)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b><i>The Name of the Rose </i></b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Machiavelli (1469-1527)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Martin Luther (1483-1546)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>John Calvin (1509-1564)</b></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;"><b><br /></b></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;"><p align="center" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-image: none; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><span style="font-size: medium;">Writing Paragraphs on Philosophical Terms and Philosophers </span></span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Philosophical Terms </span></b></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Topic Sentence: identify the term in a general statement. </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Supporting Sentences: specific statements in which you describe, explain, discuss and comment on the term. Develop general points with discussion,
illustrations and examples. <span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>Suggested descriptive points: </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Definition </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Origin and history of the term/the use of the term </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Explain the term<br />
Examples and illustrations of problems and questions surrounding or falling under the heading of the term </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What other people have said about the term </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What you think about the term, your views </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Significance? </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><b><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Philosophers, Theologians and Figures of Philosophical Interest </span></b></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Topic Sentence: identify the figure in a general statement. What is the figure’s significance or place in the history of ideas? </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Supporting Sentences: specific statements in which you describe, explain, discuss and comment on the figure. Develop general points with discussion,
illustrations and examples. <span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>Suggested descriptive points: </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Significance (possibly continued from your topic sentence, or make this(these) remark(s) at the end of your paragraph) </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Biography </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Publications and work </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Figure influenced by_______________ </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Figure influenced_______________ </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">(Remember, influences—in either direction—can include other figures, history, politics, the history of philosophy, biographical matters, and
the world of schools and school teachers.) </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Main ideas (What are the figures most important ideas?<span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: inherit; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> </span>Also, possibly use the <a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2017/12/moral-philosophy-in-context.html" target="_blank">“Moral Philosophy in Context”</a> tool: 1) Metaphysical
beliefs, special claims for reason or logic, theory of human nature. 2) Moral Philosophy. 3) Political Philosophy.) </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What <i>other people</i> have said about the figure (you might want to return to significance) </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">What you think about the figure, <i>your</i> views (again, you might want to return to significance) </span></p><span face="Calibri,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif" style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; background-color: white; color: black; display: inline; float: none; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 12pt; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: inherit; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;">
</span><p style="-webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; color: black; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; letter-spacing: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; orphans: 2; text-align: left; text-decoration: none; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; word-spacing: 0px;"><span color="inherit" style="border-bottom-color: currentColor; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-image-outset: 0; border-image-repeat: stretch; border-image-slice: 100%; border-image-source: none; border-image-width: 1; border-left-color: currentColor; border-left-style: none; border-left-width: 0px; border-right-color: currentColor; border-right-style: none; border-right-width: 0px; border-top-color: currentColor; border-top-style: none; border-top-width: 0px; border: 0px none; font-family: Times New Roman,serif; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Possible final statement: Why is the figure significant? </span></p><b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br /></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;"><b></b><i></i><u></u><sub></sub><sup></sup><strike></strike><br />
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<br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sample Essay Questions:</span></strike><br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></strike>
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">1. Consider the philosophers we have read about and discussed so far, and choose a philosopher you find interesting. After presenting a short biography, describe and comment upon the full range of your philosopher's ideas. Which of these ideas do you agree with, and why? Which do you disagree with, and why? Consider the origins of your philosopher's views, and consider how your philosopher came to hold these views. To do this, you might consider other philosophers your philosopher was responding to. Throughout your essay, discuss your criticisms and reservations.</span></strike><br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></strike>
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2. Consider how philosophy influences theology and religion, and consider how theology and religion influence philosophy. Be sure to comment on the political and historical contexts that influence such influences. Be sure to use <i>The Name of The Rose</i> to illustrate your discussion.</span></strike><br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></strike>
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3. Compare and contrast Plato and Aristotle.</span></strike><br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></strike>
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4. How does philosophy "return" during the Middle Ages? </span></strike><br />
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></strike>
<strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5. Describe and criticize the four main philosophical schools of the Hellenistic and Roman world. How were they influenced, and how did they continue to influence philosophy and theology through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Reformation?</span></strike></div>
</div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-14613406575726783462015-12-29T12:41:00.004-05:002020-08-23T11:25:58.828-04:00Rationalism and Empiricism<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reading:</span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Osborne: </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">66-86</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Kenny: 201-265</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin: as appropriate</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f3f3f3;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Robinson: </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">54-70</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Terms:</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Descartes (1596-1650)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Spinoza (1632-1677 )</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; mso-text-indent-alt: -.5in; tab-stops: 11.0pt .5in; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Leibniz ( 1646-1716)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; mso-text-indent-alt: -.5in; tab-stops: 11.0pt .5in; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Locke (1632-1677)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: -9pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-pagination: none; mso-text-indent-alt: -.5in; tab-stops: 11.0pt .5in; text-indent: 9pt;">
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Berkeley (1685-1753)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Hume (1711-1776)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span style="font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal; font: 7pt/normal "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reid (1710-1796) </span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Notes:</span></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rene Descartes (1596-1650)</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Invented co-ordinate geometry</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Rationalist: True knowledge comes from human reason alone. (Compare to Bacon).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Discourse on Method</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1637)</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Meditations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1642)</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">i) Four rules:</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Never accept anything except clear and distinct ideas.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Divide each problem into as many parts as are needed to solve it.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Order your thoughts from the simple to the complex.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Always check thoroughly for oversights.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ii) "Cartesian Doubt"</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Since the senses deceive us, I must suppose that nothing is as it appears. (How do I know I am sitting here in class?)</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) I could be dreaming or hallucinating (a wicked demon might be tricking me.)</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) The only thing I can not doubt is that I am thinking something, even if it is thinking I am being tricked.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">iv) COGITO ERGO SUM: I think, therefore I am. I am a thing that thinks.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">v) All knowledge of external things is in the mind.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">vi) Proof of God's existence: Only God can guarantee that: </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Our clear and distinct ideas are true; </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) We are not being tricked by a wicked demon.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Cartesian Dualism: the mind is separate from the body.</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">THE “ENGLIGHTENMENT” (1688-1788)</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Although "Enlightenment" is conventionally used to describe this period, the term is artificial and reductive, particularly as it is employed in the polemical writings of postmodernists and continental philosophers. <a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2019/06/was-there-enlightenment.html">Was there an Enlightenment?</a></span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Epistemology: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding">Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1690 ).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Disagreed with Plato's theory of universals</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Denied any innate ideas: "The mind is furnished with ideas by experience</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">alone."</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Newborn child is a "</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">tablarasa</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"--a blank slate, or blank sheet of paper.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Simple Ideas:Ideas are acquired from experience, and are of two kinds:</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Ideas of SENSATION (input of the senses).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Ideas of REFLECTION (thinking, believing--the different operations of the mind.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e). Complex Ideas: From simple ideas the mind forms complete ideas by combining, </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">comparing, or abstracting from simple ideas. Even imaginary ideas are formed from simple ideas coming from sense experience: unicorn, centaur, sphinx.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) The primary and secondary qualities of objects: Relationship between the idea and the object itself: Objects have qualities which produce an idea in the mind. These qualities are of two kinds:</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Primary: Primary qualities really do exist in the objects themselves: hardness, weight, sound.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Secondary: Secondary qualities produce ideas in the mind that aren't in the object: color, language. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";">Sense</span></b><span style="font-family: ";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";">Sensibility</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jonathan Swift</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A Tale of a Tub</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1704)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Alexander Pope</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Essay on Criticism</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1711) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jonathan Swift</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Gulliver's Travels</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1726) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Alexander Pope</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Dunciad</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1728-43) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Alexander Pope</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Essay on Man</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1733-34) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Voltaire</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophic Letters on the English</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1733, 34)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Candide</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1759) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Henry Fielding</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tom Jones</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1749) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Samuel Johnson</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Vanity of Human Wishes(1749)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rasselas</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1759) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">LawrenceSterne</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">TristramShandy</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1760-67) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tobias Smollett</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Humphrey Clinker</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1771) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">William Blake</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Marriage of Heaven and Hell</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1790) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mary Wollstonecraft</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A Vindication of the Rights of Women</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1792) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mary Shelley</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Frankenstein</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1818) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thomas Love Peacock</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nightmare Abbey</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1818) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jane Austen</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Northanger Abbey</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1818) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Lord Byron</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Don Juan</span></span></i><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1818-21)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Vision of Judgment</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1822) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thomas Reid(Common Sense Philosophy) </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Enquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1764) "The senses give us immediate contact with a mind-independent reality."</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">John Locke</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(Although Locke properly belongs on the "Sense" side of this issue, he is placed here because he is nevertheless the origin of the "sensibility" argument).</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Essay Concerning Human Understanding</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1690)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Two Treatises of Government</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1690)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"All knowledge comes from experience and through our senses. We know nothing but matter. Matter must be the material of mind."</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Bishop George Berkeley</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1709)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Matter does not exist except as a form of mind.Matter is not the object of perceptions.Matter is a bundle of perceptions.We don't know matter, we know only sensations.Thus matter is a mental condition.The only reality we have direct knowledge of is mind.Matter is a form of the mind."</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">David Hume</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Treatise on Human Nature</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1739-40)</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"There is no such thing as 'mind'; we never perceive any such entity as the 'mind'; rather what we perceive is merely separate ideas, memories, feelings, smells, etc.There is no such thing as mind." Natural laws and cause and effect: "We don't observe cause and effect, but only sequence." (W. would say the same thing (early phase).)</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Skepticism and empiricism lead to Idealism:</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Ideas--mind-dependent entities--are the immediate objects of our perception, memory, and thought."Hence Kant and German Idealism, and romanticism.</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">William Godwin </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-: "Times New Roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Enquiry Concerning Political Justice</span></span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1793) </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"All types of society and government are corrupt because of vested interests and prejudices of nationality and class."In place of government Godwin proposed Anarchism founded on strict determinist and utilitarian principles.</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wordsworth: Preface to </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Lyrical Ballads</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1800) 1) "Poetry should ground itself in the primary and simple feelings of the common man." 2) Poetry should portray "Emotions recollected in tranquility."</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Late 18th C. Intellectual mythology: Romanticism, transcendentalism, pantheism, scientism, nature worship; Rousseau and the idea of the noble savage; scientific/romantic notions of mind-body dualism, dialectical materialism, the nobility of the common man, the nature of the state.</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<o:p></o:p>Sources:</div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 27px;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</span></span></i></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 27px;"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-style: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Richard Osborne. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophy for Beginners</span></span></i></span></i></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Carter Kaplan. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Critical Synoptics</span></span></i></div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-12568764743353792992015-12-29T12:37:00.005-05:002020-11-02T10:53:20.104-05:00Early Modernism and American Philosophy in the Colonies and the Antebellum Period<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Sydney (1623-1683)</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Jonathan
Edwards (1703-1758)</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; mso-themecolor: text1;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mayhew"><span style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Jonathan </span></a></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;">Mayhew (1720-1766) </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-themecolor: text1;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Thomas
Jefferson (1743-1826)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2020/04/hobbes-vs-locke.html" target="_blank">Hobbes vs. Locke</a>, <a href="https://jim.com/hobbes.htm" target="_blank">2 </a> <br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2017/12/an-introducion-to-modernity-or-few.html" target="_blank">Milton. Locke & Jefferson</a> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2018/02/ariostle-and-meaning-of-eudaimonia.html" target="_blank">Aristotle and the Meaning of Eudemonia</a><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2009/01/sources-for-american-idea-of-revolution_21.html" target="_blank">Sources for an American idea of Revolution</a><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2019/06/nationalism-ethnic-and-philosophical.html" target="_blank">Nationalism: American and European Formulations</a>, <a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2016/07/nationalism-in-united-states-and-europe.html" target="_blank">2</a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2020/10/a-list-of-miltons-works-linked-to.html" target="_blank">Works of John Milton</a><br /><a href="http://kaplanethics.blogspot.com/2015/12/political-philosophy-and-human-rights.html" target="_blank">More Links</a><br /></span></div><p> <br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Important periods and years.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1640s: English Civil War(s)</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1650: Arrest, trial, and beheading of Charles I</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1650s Protectorate of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, 1650-68</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1660: Restoration. Charles II (1660-1685), James II (1685-1688)</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1688: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>. William and Mary. Constitutional Monarchy. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689">English Bill of Rights</a>.</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1750: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mayhew">Jonathan Mayhe</a>w: </span></span><a href="http://www.founding.com/founders_library/pageID.2299/default.asp"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]--><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">A discourse concerning the unlimited submission andnon-resistance to the high powers</span></span></span></i></a><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1776: Thomas Jefferson. Declaration of Independence.</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1789: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution">U. S. Constitution</a>. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights">Bill of Rights.</a></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1640s: King Charles I: The "Cavaliers" Aristocracy (Anglican--Bishops as basis of chruch government.) vs. Parliament: Calvinists: 1) Presbyterians (Presbyters as basis of church government, theocratic. 2) Independents and sectaries. Cromwell and Milton are Independents. Much of the Parliment's <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Model_Army">New Model Army</a> (headed by Cromwell) are "Levelers." </span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1640s: American Colonies: Mass Bay Colony English Presbyterians. Plymouth Colony, Salem, Rhode Island: Independents Separatists and Independents. </span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1688: James II (very high-church Anglican) vs. William (Dutch Reformed Church) and Mary (Anglican?)</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1789: Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Adams, Washington, Jay...) who are Episcopalians... vs. Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson): who are free thinkers, separatists, Congregationalists, Scottish Presbyterians, Quakers, Baptists, Methodists, etc.</span></span>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Notes:</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">John Milton (1608-1674)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Latin Secretary (Secretary of State) under Cromwell, promotes a notion of Christian Liberty: God and God’s creation (the universe) are revealed through inspiration and observation, the Son of God is </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reason</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> applied to the understanding of God and the universe. Mosaic Law is abrogated by the gospel and sacrifice of the Son; so that “regenerate” man is emancipated from outward authority and is, under divine guidance, a free agent. The Ten Commandments are abolished for Christians, who are to live by the laws of love. “The great and almost the only commandment of the gospel is to command nothing against the good of man, and much more no civil command against his civil good.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn1"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> “No ordinance, human or from heaven, can bind against the good of man.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn2"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Those who, on the basis of the Mosaic law, “burden us with imaginary and scarecrow sins . . . enslave the dignity of man.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn3"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Finally, there is no such thing as the “Divine Right of Kings.”</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">What is Milton’s </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Paradise Lost</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">?</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Theological Tract: Christian Humanism</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The fall of man and his redemption through Christ is central to Milton’s understanding.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Christian as opposed to Jewish view of history: Men can not be redeemed by history.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Original sin is a fact of existence.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Bible is the word of God, but Milton believes in th eprinciple of private interpretation. Moreover, the authority of he Bible must yield to the authority of the Holy Spirit within the individual soul.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Doctrine of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Christian Liberty</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: Mosaic Law is abrogated by the gospel and sacrifice of the Son; so that “regenerate man” is emancipated from outward authority and is, under divine guidance, a free agent.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Repudiates the doctrine of predestination: the assertion of man’s free will and responsibility is one of the central themes of the poem. God grants salvation to all believers.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reason and Justice are universal absolutes which God himself, so to speak, can not alter.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Among other things, </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">God is Absolute Reason</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and he governs a rational universe.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Human beings are endowed with reason, which can, up to a point, comprehend and rule their own nature and destiny. Men and women are the rational creatures of a rational Deity.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reason in people can discern good and evil, unless obscured by custom, sin, superstition, human frailty; because of the weakness of human reason and will, humility, obedience and divine Grace are needed.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Humanity holds a middle position in the Great Chain of Being. If a person forgets his or her place and through pride aspires to equality with God, he or she upsets the natural order, as Satan did with open revolt. When Adam and Eve sin, the natural order is upset. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nevertheless, sin they must, so they can be redeemed.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Sin and disobedience are necessary for salvation and therefore are, so to speak, “good.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">·</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Science and philosophy are important, but the line must be drawn where such learning obscures or displaces religious and moral insight, or nourishes pride and self-sufficiency. </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Exercise in Mythography: “Transformational Mythology”</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mythological Archetypes are “transformational.” Their significance changes depending upon how they are viewed, and in relation to the altering dynamics of the story. God, Adam, Eve and Satan all alter in significance as the story unfolds. Consider the following passage from William Blake’s </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Marriage of Heaven and Hell</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">:</span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Ancient poets animated all sensible objects with Gods or Geniuses, calling them by the names and adorning them with the properties of woods, rivers, mountains, lakes, cities, nations, and whatever their enlarged & numerous senses could perceive.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">And particularly they studied the genius of every city & country, placing it under its mental deity.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Till a system was formed, which some took advantage of & enslav’d the vulgar by attempting to realize or abstract the mental deities from their objects; thus began priesthood.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Choosing forms of worship from poetic tales.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">And at length they pronounced that the Gods had ordered such things.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thus men forgot that all deities reside in the human breast.</span></span></i></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. Political Manifesto: Revolution and Reformation.</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Farrago of Recondite Scholarship.</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. Commentary on Nuptial relations.</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6. Song.</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Summation:</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 41px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Milton's project is to take the Independent Calvinist worldview and from it render a secular anthropological and political understanding. This worldview is "modern" in the sense that religion and the power of the church are mitigated (first) by knowledge and scientific skepticism and (second) by constitutional policy that denies magisterial power to churches. Magisterial power is reserved exclusively to the state--this is the substance of Locke's </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Letter on Toleration</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and Jefferson's </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Virginia Act of Religious Freedom</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. In this particular and others, Milton laid the groundwork for Locke and Jefferson, who carried Milton's project forward, refining the modern worldview by defining and designing institutions--education, balance of powers, property and labor rights, natural rights, the obligations of governments and the duties of citizens, a free press, the fair and equitable distribution of wealth, and so on--that would establish and maintain the processes of an open, free and liberal society.</span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 41px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)</span></span></b></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Opposed the English Revolution and advocated a strong monarch:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Not only the universe but society and people are mechanical too.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Leviathan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1651): </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">i. "Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to everyman, the same consequent to the time wherin men live without other security than which their own strength and their own invention shall furnish them withal. In such a condition there is no place for industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain, and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and, which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ii. The state of nature is a war of all against all.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">iii. Good and evil are relative. Man's fundamental selfishness is fundamental; to aid survival, men logically form societies</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">iv. In order to form societies men renounce some of their rights and enter into a social contract: the commonwealth, an artificial man in which the sovereign is the sum of the individuals.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">CLASSICAL LIBERAL POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Locke’s Political Philosophy: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Two Treatises on Government</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1689 & 1690)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></b></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">First Treatise</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: No divine right of kings. God does not put some men above others.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Defense of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) and Milton; an attack on Sir Robert Filmer (1588-1653) and Hobbes.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Second Treatise</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) "Man is free and in this condition all men are equal" Locke's State of Nature (compare to Hobbes).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Natural Law: The right of private property: The right of private ownership lay in labor.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Since a man's labor is his own, anything he transforms with that labor was his as well.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) "The great and chief end of men uniting into commonwealths & putting themselves under government is the preservation of their property."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Inalienable Rights, which are ordained by God:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Right to Life.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Right to Liberty</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Right to Property</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Right to Rebel under unjust rulers & laws.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) "Reason, which is that [moral] law, teaches al mankind who will but consult it, that,</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or profession."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Theory of Checks and Balances: Separation of Powers: Executive and Legislative powers: "Liberal Compromise."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Locke's ideas worked in middle class England & America, but produced radical ferment throughout a Europe of absolute monarchies. Do his ideas work in today’s “Corporate” America?</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Baron Montesquieu (1689-1755)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Virtue</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> is the principle of a Republic.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Honor</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> is the principle of a Monarchy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Fear</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> is the principle of a Despotism.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Adam Smith (1723-1790)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a)</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Wealth of Nations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1776):</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Economic freedom is the obvious and simple system of a natural liberty.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) The right way to be moral was to be greedy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) The invisible hand of the marketplace.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></o:p></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Neoclassic Aesthetics</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Neoclassic authors manifested a strong traditionalism, which was often joined to a distrust of radical innovation, and was evidenced above all in their immense respect for classical writers (Greek and Roman writers), who were thought to have established the enduring models, and to have achieved a supreme level of excellence, in most of the literary genres. Hence the term "neoclassic."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Literature was conceived as primarily an "art"; one which, though it requires innate talents, must be perfected by long and steady practice, and which consists mainly in the deliberate adaptation of known and tested means to the achievement of foreseen ends upon the audience of readers. The neoclassic ideal, founded especially on Horace's </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Ars Poetica</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, is the craftsman's ideal, demanding the utmost finish, correction, and attention to detail. Neoclassic writers strove for stylistic decorum, and for "correctness" in respect to form, in respect to the essential properties of the various genres that have been abstracted from classical works whose long survival has proved their excellence.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. A person, and especially a person as an integral part of an organized society, was regarded as the primary source of poetic subject matter. Poetry is an imitation of life. Not art for art's sake, but art for humanity's sake, was the ideal of neoclassic humanism.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Both in the subject matter and the appeal of art, emphasis was placed on what humans possess in common--representative characteristics, and widely shared thoughts, feelings, and tastes.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. Neoclassic writers, like the philosophers of the time, viewed an individual as an essentially limited being who ought to address him or herself to accessible goals. Many of the great works of the period, satiric and didactic, attack humanity's "pride," or presumption beyond the natural limits of the species, and enforce the lesson of the golden mean (the avoidance of extremes) and of humanity's need to submit to a restricted position in the order of things--an order often envisioned as a natural hierarchy, or Great Chain of Being.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Source: M.H. Abrams, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A Glossary of Literary Terms</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Fourth Edition.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6. "The business of the poet," said Imlac, "is to examine, not the individual, but the species; to remark general properties and large appearances: he does not number the streaks of the tulip, or describe the different shades in the verdure of the forest. He is to exhibit in his portraits of nature such prominent and striking features, as recall the original to every mind....</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> "But the knowledge of nature is only half the task of a poet; he must be acquainted likewise with all the modes of life. His character requires that he estimate the happiness and misery of every condition; observe the power of all the passions in all their combinations, and trace the changes of the human mind as they are modified by various institutions and accidental influences of climate or custom . . . He must divest himself of the prejudices of his age or country; he must consider right and wrong in their abstracted and invariable state; he must disregard present laws and opinions, and rise to general and transcendental truths, which will always be the same . . . He must write as the interpreter of nature and the legislator of mankind, and consider himself as presiding over the thoughts and manners of future generations; as a being superior to time and place.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> "His labor is not yet at an end: he must know many languages and many sciences; and, that his style may be worthy of his thoughts, must, by incessant practice, familiarize to himself every delicacy of speech and grace of harmony.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Source: Samuel Johnson, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Chapter X.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Colonial Background</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) The Virginia Colony (1607)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Anglican: planters were mostly members of England's landed </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">aristocracy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Orthodox and conservative, modeled their political patterns after</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">ideas of the British nobility.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) The Plymouth Colony of the Pilgrim Fathers (1620)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) Represented the lower stratum of English society.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 2) Peasants, artisans, non-Anglicans, estranged from the Church of England. Had been persecuted in England.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 3) Theocratic. Intolerant.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 4) Middle class Puritans joined the colony in 1630</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> a) Mostly farmers.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> b) Anglicans in religion seeking to "purify" Anglican dogma.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 5) In time the Plymouth Colony was expanded into the Massachusetts Bay Company.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) The Dutch Settlement (1621)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) Settled along the Hudson River.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 2) Primarily merchants, and only secondarily members of a church.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 3) Tolerant in religious matters.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Maryland</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) Settled by Roman Catholics</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 2) Emphasized religious tolerance as a matter of expediency</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Pennsylvania</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) The Friends or Quakers</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> a) Freedom of Conscience through Puritan thinking.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“Puritans”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Three threads: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Prelacy, Presbyterianism (Congregationalism), Independents</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> a) Elizabethan England was strongly Protestant</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> b) Calvinism</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> c) "Puritanism" survived in New England for three generations without significant</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> challenges.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> d) Congregationalists: intolerant and authoritarian (Massachusetts Bay Colony)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Independents: tolerant and liberal (Plymouth Colony, Rhode Island)</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Roger Williams</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hutchinson"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Anne Hutchinson</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> f) Concern was with salvation of man and the revelation of God.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> f) The world reflects God's perfection. The world is created by God and was God-ruled. Nature was studied in order to find God's workings in the world.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> g) Rational knowledge does not redeem man and is not necessary to faith.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> h) Reason was used to confirm Puritan theology.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> i) rational and anti-rational at same time. </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">j) Word of God was absolute truth. Logic and reason are means to inquire into the word of God. Reason and the word of God leads to Revelation.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">k) Man fell into corruption through "imperious will" or pride. God redeems man through the "Covenant of faith."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> l) Puritans regarded themselves as God's chosen. Failure and defeat were part of God's plan.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">m) The "Covenant of Grace" maintains that "God keeps us through faith." All who accept and remain in the covenant are saved. All others are lost.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">n) Puritan work ethic. Men of Action rather than contemplation. All labor is a worship of God. Prosperity is a favor to man for his religious faith.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> o) Puritanism provided the seeds of Emersonian Pantheism and, later, American Pragmatism.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Schools</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) New England</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Basis of citizenship was the Bible and the Catechism.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Religious and democratic ideals: liberty and learning existed in a holy alliance. </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Every child shall be blessed with learning, since liberty invests in them with the rights and duties of citizenship.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Higher learning in New England</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> a) Harvard College</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Many men in New England were University men form Emmanuel College, Cambridge (Puritan).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Company founded college at Newtowne, 1639.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) John Harvard, a Congregational minister and graduate of Emmanuel bequeaths his library of 260 volumes to Newtowne College, which is renamed after him, 1639.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Harvard trains puritan ministers.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Yale College (1701) patterned after Harvard, for the education of ministers for the united Connecticut and New Haven colonies, which had been united and had set up a system of grammar schools in 1655.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) Quakers</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) New Amsterdam and the New York City Colony.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) The Southern Colonies</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Not entirely favorable to the democratic policy of educating the masses.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Privileged education for their children in private schools.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Schools not established until 1705.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Poor were educated in charity schools, training in useful trades, the schools were supported largely by the Society for the Preparation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which was based in England.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) College of William and Mary founded in 1693.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophers of the Early Years</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) First Great Awakening--probably not as significant as many historians of culture will argue. The "New Lights" were proficient at amplifying their significance though their writings.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) “New Lights” and “Old Lights”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Samuel Johnson (1696-1772). (How does he fit in here?)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) Calvinist philosopher. "New Light."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">D) Jonathan Mayhew (1720-1766). "Old Light." </span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Revolution</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Aversion to things English</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) French thinkers influenced Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, but main philosophical thrust was Lockean.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Deism: Belief in the existence of God in Nature rather than the God of revealed religion. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Deism</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: "System of natural religion assuming the existence of God while denying the validity of revelation" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">American Heritage Dictionary</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">).</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 1) God becomes "negligible and peripheral."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 2) God makes the world and steps back.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) American Enlightenment (European Enlightenment)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Thomas Paine (1737-1809)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Common Sense, The Rights of Man, The Age of Reason.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Jonathan Mayhew (1720-1766)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Powers</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1750) celebrated the execution of King Charles I. Argued against political absolutism, the divine right theories which seek to justify absolutism, and argued the right of revolution. Gave the American Revolution a footing in Natural Religion. John Adams called the work the opening gun of the American Revolution.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Mayhew was inclined toward Deism and Arianism. Argued from the pulpit that salvation came from moral struggle rather than free grace. That true religion includes the love of liberty and hate of tyranny and oppression. When government fails, people should overthrow it.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Influenced by: John Locke (1632-1704), John Milton (1608-1674), Algernon Sydney (1622-1683), Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688), Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), Francis Hutcheson (1694-1747), with added inspiration from the Scriptures, especially Paul.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> a) Rationalistic, practical morality.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Varied interests: natural sciences, art, history, religion, exploration, mechanical gadgets. Was interested in learning for the sake of learning.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Lost faith in conventional religion, but never questioned established morality.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Zeal for religious freedom.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Disliked Calvinism, but considered himself a disciple of Jesus' moral doctrines.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) At the College of William and Mary he established the professorships of anatomy, medicine, law, and modern languages, in the process abolishing the professorships of Hebrew, theology, and ancient languages.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Believed that there were regularities (universals) in Nature and human nature, discovered by science and applied for the benefit of Mankind.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Critical of Plato, but friendly to Epicurean ideas. Profoundly influenced by Newtonian thought.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">h) Jefferson's religious credo (written to Benjamin Rush in 1800):</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"I have sworn upon the alter of God, eternal hostility</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">against every form of tyranny over the mind of man.</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(Is there perhaps a hint buried here as to why Jefferson changed Locke's "property" to "happiness" in the Declaration?)</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jefferson’s religious expressions and assumptions about religion:</span></span></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html"><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Declaration of Independence</span></span></i></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . the law's of nature and Nature's God . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . --That to secure these Rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the Consent of the governed . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the Rectitude of our Intentions . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm Reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=1357">The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a></span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . Almighty God hath created the mind free; that all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens . . . civil incapacitations . . . beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness and go against] the plan of the Holy author of our religion, who being a Lord both of body and mind . . . [chooses not to control the body or mind through coercion] as was in h s almighty power to do . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . the impious presumption of legislators and rulers, civil as well as ecclesiastical, who being themselves fallible and uninspired men, have assumed dominion over the faith of others . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . false religion over the greatest part of the world, and through all time [has been] . . . established and maintained [by the above legislators and rulers] . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">" . . . to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical . . . </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . forcing . . . [a man] to support this or that teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable [comforting] liberty of giving his contributions to the particular pastor, whose morals he would make his pattern . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . our civil rights have no dependence on our religious opinions [or, our religious opinions have no influence on our civil rights], any more than our opinions . . . [have influence on] physics and geometry . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">" . . . [state supported religion encourages hypocrisy, and encourages civil magistrates to intrude . . . [their] powers into the field of opinion . . . [and repress thee religious opinions of others] which at once destroys religious liberty . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">" . . . [legislators have time only for] the rightful purposes of civil government . . . maintaining peace and good order . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . . truth is great and will prevail if left to herself, that she [truth] is the proper and sufficient antagonist to error, and has nothing to fear from from the conflict , unless by human interposition [actions of tyrants] disarmed of her natural weapons . . . [which are] free argument and debate[.]</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . errors cease . . . to be dangerous when . . . [truth] is permitted freely to contradict them . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">" . . . [n]o man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever . . . nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief . . . all men shall be free to profess, and by argument maintain, their own opinion in matters of religion . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . the rights hearty asserted are of the natural rights of mankind, and that if any act shall be hereafter passed to repeal the present, or t narrow its operation, such act shall be am infringement of natural right."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Letter to the Danbury Baptist Association, January 1, 1802</span></span></i></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . religion is a matter that lies solely between a man and his God . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . [A man] owes account to none other [than God] for his faith or his worship . . ."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . the legislative powers of the government reach actions only, and not opinions . . . "</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">(Note: Does "hate crime" legislation control actions or opinions?)</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . Adhering to this expression [--separation of church and state, Article I--] of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore man to all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties . . . "</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">". . . I reciprocate your kind prayers for the protection and blessings of the common Father and Creator of man . . "</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Observations:</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Jefferson's political considerations led to scientific ideas and religious conclusions. Or, his scientific ideas and religious considerations led to political conclusions.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 15.97px;">2) Science, politics and theology are not treated as separate compartments of culture.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 15.97px;"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 15.97px;">3) Reason (and faith in reason) is applied to all areas of human concern and endeavor. Reason yields no inconsistencies or conflict of results.</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) The American political system--the American nation--owes its existence to faith in Reason. America was the first nation to be based on Reason.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) In Germany in the, nation building in the 19th century nation building was based on culture and ethnicity.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 15.97px;">6) Why did the French Revolution fail? The French Revolution was based upon rational assumptions that were variable and transforming according to cultural leadership (see Descartes and Rousseau)?</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) Why did the American Revolution succeed? America was the first nation to be based on Reason (see Bacon and Locke)? Middle class? Located out side the mainstream of Europe?</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><b>The American Idea of Revolution:</b></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 15.97px;"><span style="font-family: "arial";">In his seminal book on <span style="font-style: italic;">The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution</span>, Bernard </span>Bailyn identifies five currents of thought that were significant to forming the world view of the colonists who struggled against the British Empire. The initial four are as follows: first, “the heritage of classical antiquity;” second, the “ideas and attitudes associated with the writings of Enlightenment rationalism;” third, the tradition represented by English common law; and, fourth, the “political and social theories of New England Puritanism.” However, according to Bailyn<span style="font-family: "arial";">,</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">important as all these clusters of ideas were, they did not in themselves form a coherent intellectual pattern, and they do not exhaust the elements that went into the making of the Revolutionary frame of mind . . . The ultimate origins of this distinctive ideological strain lay in the radical social thought of the English Civil War, and of the Commonwealth period.</span></blockquote>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">
<span style="font-family: "arial";">Bailyn goes on to say that the permanent form of the American revolutionary world view had fully formed by the late-seventeenth and early eighteenth-centuries.</span> <span style="font-family: "arial";">Interestingly enough but not surprisingly, Milton figures significantly as a progenitor of this opposition theory. If this is true, the American Revolution is properly an outcome of radical “poetical” processes of late-Protestant thought. In more modern terms, this revolutionary mindset is characterized by patterns of investigation sharing close affinities with analytic philosophy and critical synoptics. Before, however, analytic and synoptic perception is possible, thought has to be set free to range beyond the limits of custom and conventional knowledge.</span><br /><span style="font-family: "arial";"><br />Bernard </span>Bailyn<span style="font-family: "arial";">. <span style="font-style: italic;">The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution</span>. (Cambridge: </span>Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992).</span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif; font-size: 15.97px;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE: THE ESSENCE OF MODERNISM</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Separation of Church and State in the US: a Historical Perspective</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">From the U.S. Constitution:</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Amendment I</span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or</span></span></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">prohibiting the free exercise thereof</span></span></b><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">;</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> or abridging the freedom of speech, or</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the Government for a redress of grievances.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">From Amendment XIV</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">wherein they reside. </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">; nor shall any</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">laws.</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn4"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Reformation</span></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Martin Luther (1483-1546) Justification (salvation) through faith and not works.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nails 95 Theses to the Church Door in Wittenberg, 1517.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">John Calvin (1509-1564) Men and women were sinful and depraved and totally dependent for salvation on the mercy of a pure, all-powerful God. Predestination.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">English Reformation</span></span></b><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></u></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1509-1547: Henry VIII</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1547-1553: Edward VI</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1553-1558: “Bloody” Mary. Three hundred Protestants burned at the stake. Three centuries later Jane Austin writes: "This woman [Mary] had the good luck of being advanced to the throne of England, in spite of the superior pretensions, Merit and Beauty of her Cousins Mary Queen of Scotland and Jane Grey. Nor can I pity the Kingdom for the misfortunes they experienced during her reign, since they fully deserved them..."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1558-1603: Elizabeth I</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1603-1625: James I</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1625-1649: Charles I</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1640s: English Revolution/Civil War: Parliament (so-called Puritans--Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Independents, radicals) vs. King Charles I (Anglican). Hawthorne’s </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Scarlet Letter</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1850) is set during this period in America.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">John Milton (1608-1674): Latin Secretary (Secretary of State) under Cromwell, promotes a notion of Christian Liberty: God and God’s creation (the universe) are revealed through inspiration and observation, the Son of God is </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">reason</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> applied to the understanding of God and the universe. Mosaic Law is abrogated by the gospel and sacrifice of the Son; so that “regenerate” man is emancipated from outward authority and is, under divine guidance, a free agent. The Ten Commandments are abolished for Christians, who are to live by the laws of love. “The great and almost the only commandment of the gospel is to command nothing against the good of man, and much more no civil command against his civil good.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn5"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[5]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> “No ordinance, human or from heaven, can bind against the good of man.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn6"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Those who, on the basis of the Mosaic law, “burden us with imaginary and scarecrow sins . . . enslave the dignity of man.”</span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn7"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Finally, there is no such thing as the “Divine Right of Kings.”</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1649: Charles I is tried and beheaded by Cromwell and the Army. Commonwealth (Council of State) 1649-53.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1651: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Leviathan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). To preserve the social contract the authority of the ruler is absolute. Men have no right to rebel.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1653: England is not ready for republican democracy. Oliver Cromwell dissolves Parliament and becomes Lord Protector. Cromwell dies in 1658, his son, unable to rule, restores Parliament.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1660: Parliament calls Charles II. Restoration of English throne, Charles II. The middle classes will struggle with the monarchy for the next 28 years.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1679: Act of Habeas Corpus passed forbidding imprisonment without trial.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1680: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Patriarcha,or the Natural Right of Kings</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Sir Robert Filmer (d.1653). Filmer asserts divine authority of kings and denies any right to resistance.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1685-88: Reign of James II (Catholic). 1687 Declaration of Liberty of Conscience extends toleration to all religions (chiefly to accommodate Catholics).</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1689: “Glorious Revolution.” William and Mary of Orange are invited to take the throne (one reason being to save England from Roman Catholicism) and land in England. James II flees to France.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1689: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Bill of Rights</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> establishes </span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">constitutional monarchy</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> in Britain. Toleration act guarantees freedom of worship to dissenters in England.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1689 & 1690: John Locke (1632-1704) publishes his Treatises on Government. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Two Treatises of Government: In the former the false principles of Sir Robert Filmer and his followers are detected and overthrown; the latter is an essay concerning the true original extent and end of civil government</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. First Treatise repudiates Divine Right of Kings. God does not put some men above others. Second Treatise: </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--“Man is free and in this condition all men are equal.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--The right of private property. The right of private ownership originates in labor. Since a man’s </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">labor is his own, anything he transforms with that labor is his as well.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--“The great and chief end of men uniting into commonwealths & putting themselves under </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">governments is the preservation of their property.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--Inalienable Rights, which are ordained by God: 1) Right to Life; 2) Right to Liberty; 3) Right </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">to Property; 4) Right to Rebel against unjust rulers & laws.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--“</span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reason</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, which is that [moral] law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it, that, being all </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or profession.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--Checks and Balances; Separation of Powers into Executive and Legislative powers:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“Liberal Compromise.”</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">--Locke’s ideas worked in middle class England and America, but produced radical ferment </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">throughout a Europe of absolutist monarchies.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">House of Hanover (1714-1901): George I (1714-1727), George II (1727-1760), George III (1760-1820)</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">America:</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1620: Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock, form repressive theocracy. Period of colonization begins. Congregationalist establishment remains unchallenged in New England until the 1730s.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1730-70: First Great Awakening in New England, Mid Atlantic, down to NC. New Light Congregationalists and Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists (after 1770) challenge Congregationalist and Episcopalian authority:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Gilbert Tennent: New Jersey</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jonathan Edwards: Boston</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">George Whitefield: Anglican, (follower of John Wesley, Methodist).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jonathan Mayhew (1720-1809): West Church, Boston</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1750: Boston: Mayhew publishes a sermon entitled “A Discourse Concerning Unlimited Submission and Non-Resistance to the Higher Powers: with Some Reflection on the Resistance Made to King Charles I” (http://www.lawandliberty.org/mayhew.htm). In this sermon Mayhew justifies (but criticizes the proceedings leading to) the execution of Charles I. Argues against political absolutism, the divine right theories which seek to justify absolutism, and argued the right of revolution. John Adams called Mayhew’s sermon the opening gun of the American Revolution. On other occasions Mayhew preached salvation came from moral struggle rather than grace, that true religion includes the love of liberty and hate of tyranny and oppression.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1759: Virginia: Patrick Henry defended a parish sued by its rector for lost wages due to the Two-Penny Act. According to Henry, the Act had been passed for the good of the people; the king and “father of his people,” who disallowed the act had “degenerated into a tyrant, and forfeits all rights to his subjects obedience.” Some of those present mutter “treason.” Henry next attacked the clergy: “We have heard a great deal,” he said, “about the benevolence and holy zeal of our reverend clergy. But how is this manifested? . . . Do they feed the hungry and clothe the naked? No! These rapacious harpies would, were their power equal to their will, snatch from the hearth of their honest parishioner his last hoecake, from the widow and her orphan children her last milch cow! The last bed—nay, the last blanket—from the lying-in woman [woman in labor]!” Henry concluded that in disregarding the Two-Penny Act the clergy had acted with characteristic disregard of the public good and thus violated the principle upon which established churches must rest: “The only use of an established church and clergy in society is to enforce obedience to civil sanctions, and . . . when a clergy cease to answer these ends, the community have no further need of their ministry, and may justly strip them of their appointments.” In this case, “instead of useful members of the state, they ought to be considered as enemies of the community, and . . . very justly deserved to be punished with signal severity.”</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1759-1763: The Mayhew-Apthorp controversy. Unable to establish itself in America without Parliament’s authorization, in 1759 the Anglican Church sought to work around the law by setting up a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at a mission in Cambridge on the very doorsteps of Harvard University. East Apthorp, the person appointed to the post, was supercilious and arrogant. In his preaching and writing, Apthorp identified Christian orthodoxy with episcopacy, and equated New England nonconformity with superstition, fanaticism, hypocrisy, persecution, popery and Mohammedanism. Anthorp contributed to the fears that an American episcopate was going to be established in New England. In response, Mayhew published </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the Society</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1763), which criticized the Society for violating its charter, and claimed the society was “setting alter against alter” with the design of deceiving New England nonconformists into submitting to the establishment of the Church of England. Mayhew hurled invectives against the Church: a mode of worship that was completely alien “from the simplicity of the Gospel and apostolic times,” an “enormous hierarchy,” the same “mitred, lordly successors of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the fishermen of Galilee,</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">” who had originally driven the colonists’ ancestors from “the fair cities, villages and delightful fields of Britain” into the “arms of savages and barbarians.” Mayhew warned that religious oaths would be demanded as they were in Britain, and that the colonists would “be taxed for the support of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">bishops</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and their </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">underlings</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.” Mayhew warned that an over-all establishment could be created by an act of parliament or by fiat of the crown; but neither parliament nor the crown had the right to extend the ecclesiastical laws of England to America. Moreover, England had no right to reach in any other way into the internal affairs of the colonies.</span></span><span style="color: #0024f4;"><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn8"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[8]</span></span></a></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1765: Boston: Mayhew preaches a sermon against the Stamp Act. Riots follow.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1770: Boston Massacre. British troops present because of postwar depression in England (after the Seven Years war/French and Indian War) fight with colonists over jobs on the docks of Boston.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1773: Boston Tea Party</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">July 4, 1776: Declaration of Independence</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Acts of Religious Freedom and Tolerance</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">During the 70s and 80s, acts guaranteeing religious tolerance and freedom were passed throughout the colonies/states prohibiting the establishment of any one religion and to protect nonconformists by placing all religions on an equal footing, through. Controversy in New England continues into the early 1800s.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">June, 1776: Virginia Declaration of Rights. “Religion can be directed only by reason and conviction . . . all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion according to the dictates of conscience.” Important sections authored by James Madison, who was influenced by claims of Presbyterians, “persecuted Baptists,” as well as notions of Natural Law. However, the Episcopal Church remained established in Virginia for another ten years.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1786: Virginia Act for Establishing Religious Freedom, Thomas Jefferson</span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Whereas Almighty God hath created the mind free; that all attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens, or by civil incapacitations, tend only to beget habits of hypocrisy and meanness, and are a departure from the plan of the Holy author of our religion, who being Lord both of body and mind, yet chose not to propagate it by coercions on either, as it was in his Almighty power to do; that the impious presumption of legislators and rulers, civil as well as ecclesiastical, who being themselves but fallible and uninspired men, have assumed dominion over the faith of others, setting up their own opinions and modes of thinking as the only true and infallible, and as such endeavouring to impose them on others, hath established and maintained false religions over the greatest part of the world, and through all time; that to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical; that even the forcing him to support this or that teacher of his own religious persuasion, is depriving him of the comfortable liberty of giving his contributions to the particular pastor, whose morals he would make his pattern, and whose powers he feels most persuasive to righteousness, and is withdrawing from the ministry those temporary rewards, which proceeding from an approbation of their personal conduct, are an additional incitement to earnest and unremitting labours for the instruction of mankind; that our civil rights have no dependence on our religious opinions, any more than our opinions in physics or geometry; that therefore the proscribing any citizen as unworthy the public confidence by laying upon him an incapacity of being called to offices of trust and emolument, unless he profess or renounce this or that religious opinion, is depriving him injuriously of those privileges and advantages to which in common with his fellow-citizens he has a natural right; that it tends only to corrupt the principles of that religion it is meant to encourage, by bribing with a monopoly of worldly honours and emoluments, those who will externally profess and conform to it; that though indeed these are criminal who do not withstand such temptation, yet neither are those innocent who lay the bait in their way; that to suffer the civil magistrate to intrude his powers into the field of opinion, and to restrain the profession or propagation of principles on supposition of their ill tendency, is a dangerous fallacy, which at once destroys all religious liberty, because he being of course judge of that tendency will make his opinions the rule of judgment, and approve or condemn the sentiments of others only as they shall square with or differ from his own; that it is time enough for the rightful purposes of civil government, for its officers to interfere when principles break out into overt acts against peace and good order; and finally, that truth is great and will prevail if left to herself, that she is the proper and sufficient antagonist to error, and has nothing to fear from the conflict, unless by human interposition disarmed of her natural weapons, free argument and debate, errors ceasing to be dangerous when it is permitted freely to contradict them:</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Be it enacted by the General Assembly, That no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinion in matters of religion, and that the same shall in no wise diminish enlarge, or affect their civil capacities.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">And though we well know that this assembly elected by the people for the ordinary purposes of legislation only, have no power to restrain the acts of succeeding assemblies, constituted with powers equal to our own, and that therefore to declare this act to be irrevocable would be of no effect in law; yet we are free to declare, and do declare, that the rights hereby asserted are of the natural rights of mankind, and that if any act shall be hereafter passed to repeal the present, or to narrow its operation, such act shall be an infringement of natural right.</span></span></i><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn9"><b><i><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[9]</span></span></span></i></b></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1801: Baptists in Danbury, Connecticut were persecuted because they were not part of the Congregationalist establishment in that state.</span></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Danbury Baptist Association, concerned about religious liberty in the new nation writes to President Thomas Jefferson, Oct. 7, 1801:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">“Sir,</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Among the many millions in America and Europe who rejoice in your Election to office; we embrace the first opportunity which we have enjoyd in our collective capacity, since your Inauguration, to express our great satisfaction, in your appointment to the chief Majestracy in the United States; And though our mode of expression may be less courtly and pompious than what many others clothe their addresses with, we beg you, Sir to believe, that none are more sincere.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Our Sentiments are uniformly on the side of Religious Liberty -- That Religion is at all times and places a matter between God and individuals -- That no man ought to suffer in name, person, or effects on account of his religious Opinions - That the legitimate Power of civil government extends no further than to punish the man who works ill to his neighbor: But Sir our constitution of government is not specific. Our ancient charter together with the Laws made coincident therewith, were adopted on the Basis of our government, at the time of our revolution; and such had been our Laws & usages, and such still are; that Religion is considered as the first object of Legislation; and therefore what religious privileges we enjoy (as a minor part of the State) we enjoy as favors granted, and not as inalienable rights: and these favors we receive at the expense of such degrading acknowledgements, as are inconsistent with the rights of freemen. It is not to be wondered at therefore; if those, who seek after power & gain under the pretense of government & Religion should reproach their fellow men -- should reproach their chief Magistrate, as an enemy of religion Law & good order because he will not, dare not assume the prerogatives of Jehovah and make Laws to govern the Kingdom of Christ.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Sir, we are sensible that the President of the United States, is not the national legislator, and also sensible that the national government cannot destroy the Laws of each State; but our hopes are strong that the sentiments of our beloved President, which have had such genial affect already, like the radiant beams of the Sun, will shine and prevail through all these States and all the world till Hierarchy and Tyranny be destroyed from the Earth. Sir, when we reflect on your past services, and see a glow of philanthropy and good will shining forth in a course of more than thirty years we have reason to believe that America's God has raised you up to fill the chair of State out of that good will which he bears to the Millions which you preside over. May God strengthen you for the arduous task which providence & the voice of the people have cald you to sustain and support you in your Administration against all the predetermined opposition of those who wish to rise to wealth & importance on the poverty and subjection of the people.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">And may the Lord preserve you safe from every evil and bring you at last to his Heavenly Kingdom through Jesus Christ our Glorious Mediator.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Signed in behalf of the Association.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nehh Dodge Ephram Robbins The Committee Stephen S. Nelson</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">On January 1, 1802, in response to the letter from the Danbury Baptist Association, Jefferson wrote:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Gentlemen:</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The affectionate sentiments of esteem and approbation which are so good to express towards me, on behalf of the Danbury Baptist Association, give me the highest satisfaction. My duties dictate a faithful and zealous pursuit of the interests of my constituents, and in proportion as they are persuaded of my fidelity to those duties, the discharge of them becomes more and more pleasing.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his God; that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship; that the legislative powers of the government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should `make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," thus building a wall of separation between church and State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore man to all of his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">I reciprocate your kind prayers for the protection and blessings of the common Father and Creator of man, and tender you and your religious association, assurances of my high respect and esteem.</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Thomas Jefferson</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftn10"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1800: Jefferson’s Motto (written by Benjamin Rush): “I have sworn upon the alter of God, eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man” </span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">English Common Law vs. Religious Law</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="text-decoration: underline;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">:</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">English Common Law was source of legal authority and understanding. Where metaphysical assumptions were thought necessary, Natural Law (Reason) was cited. Legal scholars sought to identify and remove church law from common law. In the Laws of Alfred a pious copyist had prefixed four chapters of mosaic law, an inclusion which Jefferson described as fraud, forgery and monkish fabrication. Anti-establishment laws were designed to:</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Take religious matters out of common law. Example of religious law: heresy was a capital offense punishable by burning, according to the writ of </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">de haerectico comburando</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Foil the designs of Federalists such as Alexander Hamilton, who wanted to create institutions to control and exploit people.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. Encourage people to live together.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Pacify radical nonconformists.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. Protect the United States from religious violence and warfare.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">OTHER AMERICAN PHILOSOPHERS AND SCHOOLMEN OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jefferson, Franklin, Madison, Hamilton and Paine were the definitive thinkers of the period. Others:</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">John Witherspoon (1723-1794)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Scottish Presbyterian minister.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Ecclesiastical Characteristics</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1753), a conservative diatribe against the current Scottish theological controversy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A Serious Inquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Stage</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1757), an attack upon all drama.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Trial of Religious Truth by its Moral Significance</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (1759), a sermon attacking natural religion.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) Migrated to America in 1768 to become president of Princeton University, where he was first of the line of representatives of Scottish common-sense realism, and drove out Berkeley's idealism. He favored founding a moral philosophy of human nature without conflict between reason and religion, what Santayana called "the genteel tradition" in American philosophy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) A signer of the Declaration of Independence, member of the Continental Congress.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) Lectures on Moral Philosophy (1800).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) "Man is neither pure spirit or pure body."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8) Calvinistic and transcendental: An attempt to correct the skepticism of Hume by advancing the hypothesis that knowledge is first, last, and at all times a knowledge of objects (see Reid).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">9) "We have duties:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) . . . to ourselves, such as temperance and frugality.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) . . . to God, in obedience to His Law as set forth by the Scriptures."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) . . . to our neighbors involving both "natural rights and rights acquired by legal and social conventions." </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">10) Eventually, Witherspoon's teachings failed in their persuasiveness.</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Timothy Dwight (1752-1817)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) President of Yale University from 1795-1817</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Represents the "enlightened orthodoxy" of the period, as Paine and Franklin represent "enlightened heresy."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Rationalism is balanced by orthodox religion: there is no real conflict between reason and revealed religion. Where such conflict occurs is due to our natural limitations as human beings, and our ignorance.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Faith in the ultimate rationality of revealed religion saves us from the dangers and challenges to faith represented by abstract reason.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Dwight claimed the authority of the Bible was absolute.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) The finite human mind is capable of reason, which yearns for transcendent truth.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) Emerson would eventually provide the poetry to satisfy reason's yearning for transcendent truth.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Benjamin Rush (1745-1813)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Outstanding scientist of the period.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Signer of the Declaration of Independence.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) Physician, reformer, moralist, churchman, practical man of affairs.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Influenced by Scottish common-sense realism: science and learning,</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">philosophy and religion, all contribute to an understanding of the fundamental relationships, indirect and indirect, between God, the world, and man.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">AMERICAN ROMANTICISM</span></span></b></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Transcendentalism</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1) Originating in Germany (Kant, post-Kant: F.W. Schelling (1775-1834), Schiller, Goethe, brought to the English speaking world through Carlisle and (esp.) Coleridge, who were discovered by the New England clergy.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2) Lies somewhere between the poetic metaphysics of Edwards and the prosaic (and “profane”) Deism of Franklin and Paine.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3) 1820-1860: America had become rich, men had become intoxicated by their</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">own importance, Puritan humility had been lost and, with it, the sense</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">of the sacred and the holy. The earth was made for man by man. Heaven and</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Earth had been cut asunder. How could they be brought together again?</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4) Transcendentalism rediscovered heaven, beauty, and the ineffable. A</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">poetic movement in the costume of philosophy, progress, democracy, social</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">reform (abolitionism), spiritual equality, experiments in Utopian living (Brook Farm, Fruitlands), back-to-nature, self reliance, non-conformity and civil disobedience (Thoreau), Unitarianism, spiritualism, animal magnetism, phrenology, mystic cults, and so on.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5) A religious philosophy born at a time when liberal theology and the</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">philosophy on which theological opinions were based was creating</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">dissatisfaction. Transcendentalism is a reaction against excessive emphasis on science and rationalism, both of which are characteristic of the Enlightenment.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6) Transcendentalism sought a direct relationship between the soul and</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">God (not through reason, but through mysticism and emotion). The</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">transcendental project was to pass beyond not only the conventional</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">avenues of communication and the senses, but also the churches, the clergy, and the Scriptures.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7) Combines Edward's Calvinist notions of the Elect possessing a</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"supernatural sense" or intuition, with Kant's notions that God, freedom and immortality are not phenomenal, and are not reached through the senses or through scientific thinking.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8) Man has an intuitive capacity for grasping ultimate truth, and this achieving direct knowledge of the supernatural and greater universe that exists beyond the reach of the senses.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Publications:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Nature (1836)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) American Scholar Address (1837), Phi Betta Kappa address.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) The Divinity School Address (1838), to the graduating class.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Essays, First Series (1841)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Essays, Second Series (1844)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Representative Men (1850)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Conduct of Life (1860)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">h) Society and Solitude (1870)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Calvinist/Congregationalist background. Calvinism is at times anti-intellectual in temper. Emerson always showed a bias against the rational, the logical, or against metaphysical theory. Little interest in or acquaintance with science and philosophy. Rather than logic, he preferred intuitionism, intuitive insight, sensitivity, and receptivity as methods of seeking knowledge and examining reality.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. Emerson shares much in common with Edwards: Both born into families of Congregational clergymen. Reared in an intellectual and refined atmosphere, where moral restraint was strongly encouraged. Both were delicate, fragile children, sensitive, over-intellectualizing, brooding. But Edwards was an intellectual powerhouse; Emerson was a poet.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Emerson became a Unitarian minister, but left, disheartened.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. In 1833, Emerson went to Europe to meet Coleridge, and Carlyle</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">to rethink his life. Aboard ship he discovered that God could be found in the depths of his own heart. He did not need Europe and, having found his own salvation within himself, preached self-reliance the rest of his life.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6. 1835, returned to America and embarked upon a career as a writer and lecturer.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7. According to Kant, "transcendental" referred to faculties of reason: The faculty of judgment (Transcendental Analytic); and the critique of reason proper (Transcendental Dialectic). Like other American transcendentalists, Emerson did little to find out what Kant meant.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8. For Emerson, "Transcendentalism" was a dogma whereby man has knowledge (a higher understanding) which derives from faculties higher than the faculty of reason. Emerson is supposed to have learned of the distinction between understanding and reason from Coleridge, who is supposed to have learned the distinction from Kant.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">9. Emerson's teachings were sometimes mystical, sometimes Swedenborgian, showing the idea of humanity as the greater man; and sometimes Emerson taught "self reliance" was the source and meaning of his philosophy. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">10. The function of culture is to lead the individual away from the natural, to correct the egoist, to reform the individualistic theory of success and to search for the ideal outcome of individualism: "men of original perception and action." These would be poet-philosophers, like Emerson.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">11. Emerson disregarded the precise meaning of words. He claimed the text determines the meaning of words. Sometimes Emerson is rationalistic, sometime he is anti-rationalistic.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">12. Against dogma he praised reason. Against science he was the champion of revelation, intuition, faith, insight, and poetic expression. Understanding and insight were complementary.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">13. Emerson had no articulate theory of knowledge, only a working hypothesis.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">14. He was more Platonic than Kantian.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">15. In the search for true selfhood, Emerson placed emphasis on "self-reliance."</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Less interest in cosmic speculation than Emerson, who was in a sense Thoreau's "guru."</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Walden is the record of an individual trying to discover for himself his own values.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. Revered nature as a living bible.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Thoreau was on a mystic quest for the absolute. He viewed many of his contemporaries with disdain, a and considered man in general to be trapped in worldliness, and leading lives of quiet desperation.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Civil Disobedience</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> was written after Thoreau spent a night in jail for not paying his taxes (in protest of the Mexican War, the treatment of Indians, and the Fugitive Slave Law).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6. Anarchist: Agrees along with Jefferson that government is necessary, but believed that democracy is not the final form of government, which will come when independent, truly self-reliant individuals are prepared for a non- government state.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">7. Churches are full of quackery and spiritual cripples.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">8. Man at the highest was man unorganized. Actually, this was the</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">underlying spirit of the Puritan. Seen also underlying the philosophy of Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, Henry James the Elder; evident also in the empirical radicalism of William James' philosophy of pragmatism.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">9. In the search for true selfhood, Thoreau found meaning in being independent and "beside himself."</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Henry James, the Elder (1811-1882)</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">1. Father of Henry James and William James</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">2. Three main principles:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) The individual is nothing--all the individual seems to be is from nature: the inheritance from the human race and society.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) We gain our real selfhood from God alone.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Real being is created out of non-being through an intermediate step of creation.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">3. Creation is a process of two movements:</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Formation: Nature: illusory being, the quickening of the void unto itself.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Redemption: Society: real being, the finished spiritual work of God.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">4. Nature is the unredeemed for of man. Society id the redeemed form of man.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">5. Democracy is social and moral rather than political. Democracy is not advanced through national wealth, honor, or glory, but through the increase of human relations among the members of society.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) Government is necessary because society is immature.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Laws describe men negatively; laws declare what men are not, what they are.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Democracy is the herald of moral perfection in man, the forerunner of a redeemed society.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Social democracy is the precursor of the spirituality of the kingdom of God on earth.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">6. In the search for true selfhood, James tried to account for man's spiritual development in terms of indwelling divinity.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Other Transcendentalists and Transcendentalist Sympathizers</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) James Marsh</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Frederick Henry Hodge</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Caleb Sprague Henry</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Theodore Parker (1810-1860)</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Bronson Alcott</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) Margaret Fuller</span></span></div>
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Counterpoint</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The transcendentalists were criticized, ridiculed, and rejected by Hawthorne in several of his works. See the novel </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Blithedale Romance</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, the Introduction to </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Mosses From an Old Manse</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, and the short stories "The Hall of Fantasy" and "The Celestial Railroad"; they are also satarized by Melville in the novels </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Moby-Dick</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Confidence-Man</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. In an essay on Hawthorne, Poe suggested that Emerson should be hung.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref1"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tetrachordan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 1645.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref2"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">De Doctrina Christiana</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Of Christian Doctrine</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), composed 1658-65; disappeared at Milton’s death & rediscovered in 1823.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref3"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 1643.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref4"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Amendment I, 1791. Amendment IX, 1866.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref5"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[5]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tetrachordan</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 1645.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref6"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">De Doctrina Christiana</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Of Christian Doctrine</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">), composed 1658-65; disappeared at Milton’s death & rediscovered in 1823.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref7"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 1643.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref8"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Writing fifty-four years later, John Adams remembers the controversy “spread an universal alarm against the authority of Parliament. It excited the general and just apprehensions that bishops, and dioceses, and churches and priests, and tithes, were to be imposed on us by Parliament. It was known that neither King, nor ministry, nor archbishops could appoint bishops in America without an Act of Parliament; and if Parliament could tax us, they could</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">establish the Church of England with all its creeds, articles, tests, ceremonies, and tithes, and prohibit all other churches . . .” Adams, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Works</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, X, 288.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref9"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[9]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span><a href="http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/42.htm"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/42.htm</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week7.htm#_ftnref10"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Robert S. Alley, Professor of Humanites, Emeritus, University of Richmond, from his article, "Public Education and the Public Good," published in </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Vol. 4, Issue 1, Summer 1995. And Lipscomb, Andrew and Bergh, Albert, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Writings of Thomas Jefferson</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, Vol. 16, pp. 281-282.</span></span><br />
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Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-8549232797320419612015-12-29T12:32:00.008-05:002021-03-31T12:30:48.888-04:00Romanticism, Idealism, Existentialism (Continental Philosophy)<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Osborne: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">95-130, 153-161</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Kenny: </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">266-306</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">, </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">320-332</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><br /></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Penguin</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif;"><span style="color: #eeeeee;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Oxford:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> 166-238, 329-332, 337-362</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "georgia" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span> </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Terms:</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Rousseau (1712-1778)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Goethe (1749-1832)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Kant (1724-1804)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Hegel (1770-1831)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Marx (1805-1900)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Nietzsche (1844-1900)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Heidegger">Heidegger</a> (189-1976)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre">Sartre</a> (1905-1980)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><b>Notes:</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"> </span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Jean-Jaques Rousseau (1712-1778) "First militant low-brow in history."</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Feeling rather than reason should be the basis for an approach to theology and politics</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Undermined the intellectual, scientific, mechanical/deterministic approaches to the Enlightenment.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Discourse on the Arts and Sciences</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Art & science had degraded man.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Science and virtue were incompatible.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) Before civilization men's morals were "rude but natural."</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Emile</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Subject is education: Liberation method of education aimed at developing the child without destroying the "natural state." </span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Discourse on Inequality</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1754).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Introduces the idea of the "noble savage." Stressed feeling, emotion, imagination.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Primitive man lived in organic unity with himself and his environment. Modern man was cut off from himself.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Feeling, emotion, and awe were a kind of proof of God.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) Heart before reason, poetry before science.</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Social Contract</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1762).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Became the Bible of the French Revolution: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Argued for "direct democracy" rather than "elective democracy."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) "Man is born free; everywhere he is in chains."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) "General Will." Not the will of all, but an abstract expression of</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">what is best for all. Each individual subjugates himself to the collective General will.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) No need for participatory democracy: the general will emerges as disagreements between individuals cancel each other out.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) If a man acts against the general will, or sovereign, he must be forced to be free.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) German, great philosopher of continental idealism.</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Critique of Pure Reason</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1781, 1786)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) The immediate objects of perception are due not only to the evidence provided by our senses, but also to our perceptual apparatus, which order our sense-impressions into intelligible unities. "Though our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises out of experience."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Knowledge of objects as such, as things in themselves (noumena), is impossible since we can only know our ordered sense impressions (phenomena).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) Space and time are subjective, a priori institutions. Ordering of sense objects takes place in time, with the appropriate application of general concepts.</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Critique of Practical Reason</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1788)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) The three principle ideas of reason--God, Freedom, Immortality--are known because pure reason leads us to them for practical, i.e. moral considerations. This forms discussion also in the Prolegomena.</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Groundwork to a Metaphysics of Morals</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1785).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Categorical Imperative: "Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." </span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Critique of Judgment</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> (1790).</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">A Kant miscellany:<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Aesthetics</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">: Aesthetic Judgment is independent of personal, psychological and moral considerations, yet singular and universally valid. That is, philosophers can use reason to determine what is beauty and what is a good work of art (compare to his moral philosophy).<br /></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Politics</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">: Supported French Revolution, but not the terror. Liberal in politics & theology, which was interpreted as being anti-Lutheran, was asked to stop. He published his lectures (and his letters) after the death of William II. </span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Influence</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">: Greater than any of the idealist schools to which he gave rise, though Fichte, Hegel and Schopenhauer were more widely influential. Why is he greater? Because the questions raised by Kant and his treatment of them are more interesting than the others.</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Kant's idealism</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">: We know only Appearance (phenomena). We cannot know Reality (<i>noumena</i>), the thing-in-itself.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><a href="http://carterkaplan.blogspot.com/2020/05/kant-and-rawls-drawing-up-droll.html" target="_blank">Kant's moral philosophy (with comparison to John Rawls).</a> <br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">G.W.F. (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich) Hegel (1770-1831)</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> a) German (Prussian)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> b) Main Ideas:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Everything is related; pieces only have meaning when they are seen as part of the whole.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) The world is a dynamic process that connects the three-fold realities of: one, Absolute spirit; two, Nature; and three, Man's Mind.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) This dynamic process is the movement of thought itself: the Dialectic, a process of logic by which we deduce from our experience the categories that lead to "The Absolute."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Thesis</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Antithesis</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Synthesis</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Logical idea</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Nature</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Spirit</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">(unity of idea and nature)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Subjective Spirit</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Objective Spirit</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Absolute Spirit</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Inner Workings of</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">the Human Mind</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">External Embodiment in</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Social & Political Institutions</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Art, Religion</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">& Philosophy</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) The notion of the "Objective Spirit" is taken up by other philosophers. The importance of understanding the totality, the system as the whole shaped Marxism and other abstract notions of "inevitable necessity."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">5) <i>Zeitgeist</i> (time-spirit): interconnections between individuals, society and religion in a particular age.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">6) History (existence) is a dialectical process leading (Marching! Hup! Hup! Hup!) to <b>The</b> <b>Absolute</b>!</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) Hegel's system:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) It is a system in motion.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Contradiction (the dialectic) drives the system.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) The system is all-embracing. Everything is included.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) The appearance of things (at rest) is different to their reality (which is in a state of motion).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">5) All history is the working-out of the Spirit through time. This is the March of Reason.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">6) Logic = Metaphysics.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">7) The Dialectic = Metaphysics; movement toward "The Absolute."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">d) Mind and Reality:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Reality is constructed by the mind. People don’t know this at first; they think reality is "out there," and that they are independent of it. Thus, the mind is alienated from itself.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Then the mind realizes that reality is of its own creation, and through knowing reality as clearly as it knows itself, it at last becomes one with itself.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) This process of self-discovery is what makes the system work--the system works through the process of developing self-consciousness.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) World history is the great reflection of this pattern. Initially, individual beings across the globe developed through partial consciousness into the Greeks & Romans, and down through history until the mind ends with complete self-realization in the Hegelian system and the PRUSSIAN STATE--THE ABSOLUTE!</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">e) Hegel's legacy:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Interconnections of thought and society.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) The Dialectic.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) Absolute Idealism.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) Glorification of the (Prussian) State.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">f) Hegel’s influence: Impacted Marx, who replaces Hegel's "spirit" with a "real" understanding of nature, work, and economics: Dialectical Materialism. Influenced communists, socialists and fascist alike.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Karl Marx (1805-1900)</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) The mode of production is the determining force of history. All ill/evil is due to private ownership of the means of production.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Three moments of Human Consciousness.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Self-awareness</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Self-alienation</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) Self-realization</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) These correspond to a specific stage in human history where Man defines himself through his labor is a particular way:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) First stage: Nature dominates Man.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Second stage: Private property grows and Nature becomes mainly an object for</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Man.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) Third stage: Private property is abolished and Man realizes himself fully.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">or</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">d) Five epochs of human history, each dominated by a different mode of production:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Primitive communism: Hunting/gathering, primitive agriculture.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Slavery</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3 Feudalism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) Capitalism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a. Private property and alienation are characteristic.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b. Increasing polarization between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">5) Communism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">e) Marx's criticism of Mainstream political economy (economics); particularly Adam Smith:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Political economy sanctified private property to justify the status quo;</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Wrongly taught that human nature was fixed and abstract. Marx taught that human nature was variable, a reflection of and dependent upon environment.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">3) The model of liberal Lassiez-Faire market economy allows the maximum freedom was Rubbish to Marx. Free competition doesn’t free individuals--it merely sets capital free to exploit workers.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">4) "Property is Theft" (Proudhon).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 115pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">5) Of course, Marx's predictions did not come true. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> Is Marxism simply a divide and conquer strategy (class struggle)? </span></span>Western countries legislated reforms and the labor movement corrected inequities, so that a large middle class was formed. When social classes did not prove fertile ground for "revolution", did "political science "elites" turn to ethnicity and race to divide and control people? <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btVNUDN_P3E&list=PLhk5ehNYDJoWGe50IPR5G6loT_LTTlHI7" target="_blank">Cultural Marxism</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rj1fjy0iM6U" target="_blank">2</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7e_BaXU3mA" target="_blank">3</a>, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=liT7e5M6XfY" target="_blank">4 analysis of Peterson's C.M. myth</a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Marx said the future lay with the masses, Nietzsche said the future lay with great men.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Philosopher</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">: "A terrible explosive in the presence of which everything is in danger."</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Morality and Truth:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) "There is no universal morality." Rational basis of morality is an illusion.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) "Men are individuals and must be judged as such."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) Christianity is the morality of the Herd. A slave morality.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">d) Women, socialism, and universal suffrage belong to an inferior world.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">e) A morality for all is ridiculous.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">f) True virtue is only for the aristocratic morality.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">g) Only the feelings and intentions of mighty men are important.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">h) Perspective theory of truth: Truth, like morality, is a relative affair: There are no facts, only interpretations. (Compare Marx's notion that Truth is a bourgeois notion.)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">i) "Language falsifies reality." We will not be rid of God until we are rid of grammar.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">j) "Is not life 100 times too short for us to bore ourselves?"</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">k) "The future influences the present as much as the past." </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">l) "Out of the death of God will come an active Nihilism and the rise of supermen.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">There will be wars such as there have never been seen on Earth before."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">m) "I teach you the Superman [<i>Übermensch</i>] . . . man is something to be surpassed. Man is a rope connecting animal and superman--a rope over a precipice. What is great in man is that he is a bridge and not a goal."</span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Thus Spoke Zarathustra</span></i><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Theme: The superman desires through his "Will to power" (the will to live), a higher, more powerful state of being. Through a total revaluation of all morals the superman will emerge--strong, hard, and, if need be, cruel.</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Nietzsche's Psychological Orientation:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) Nietzsche marked a significant shift in the history of philosophy. The rational subject was</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">rejected in favor of a complex view of man and morality based in a psychological description.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Attacked the need for metaphysics as springing from psychological weakness, from a refusal to confront the cosmos through WILL.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c) Nietzsche discussed the role of the passions and the psychological role of religion.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">d) According to Nietzsche, this dynamic drives underlie artistic endeavor.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">e) The repression of sexual instinct drives irrationality in Christianity, politics, and morality. The "will to power" is the other side of instinct and its suppression; will to power is the exercise and realization of man's base instincts.</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Nietzsche and Art:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">a) In discussing Greek tragedy, Nietzsche made the distinction between the gods Apollo and</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Dionysus:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Apollo: order, form, restraint.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Dionysus: frenzy of passion and vital forces.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">b) Greek tragedy was the conquest of Dionysus by Apollo. Art is the product of this dynamic conflict.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">c)19th century culture denied the Dionysian, smothering everything with life-denying</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Christian pieties.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">d) German colure was decadent and philistine: it could only be saved by Wagner. But Wagner became a Christian, and Nietzsche rejected him.</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Nietzsche and Metaphysics:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">1) Everything is in a state of flux (see Heraclitus). Upon the world of flux we impose,</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">through our will to power, our perspective, our interpretations, and our orderings.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">Language and our weakness prevent us from imposing our "will" upon the world.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Courier New"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman"; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">2) Eternal recurrence (see Penguin page 386).</span></div></span>Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-90901826075140800782015-12-29T12:28:00.007-05:002020-11-23T10:48:25.812-05:00Philosophy: 19th and 20th Centuries<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-weight: bold;">Re<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ading:</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Osborne: 114-117, 131-152, 161-182</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Kenny: 309-319, 333-64</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Penguin</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Terms:</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Darwin (1809-1882)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">John Henry Newman (1801-1873)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Utilitarianism</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pragmatism</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">William James (1842-1910)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber">Max Weber </a>(1864-1920)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Freud (1856-1939)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Russell (1872-1970)</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">R. Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980)</span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Notes:</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ANGLO-AMERICAN PHILOSOPHY IN THE 19</span></b><b><sup><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">th</span></sup></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> CENTURY</span></b></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Darwin</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Charles Darwin (1809-1882)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) H.M.S. Beagle, 1831-1836</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Natural Selection:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. <i>The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection</i> (1859). Though not himself the originator of the evolutionary hypothesis, nor even the first to apply the concept to of descent to plant and animal organisms, Darwin was the first to thinker to gain for natural selection a wide acceptance among biological experts.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2. <i>The Descent of Man </i>(1871. The human race has descended from a hairy quadrumanous animal belonging to the great anthropoid group, and related to the progenitors of the orag-utan, chimpanzee, and the gorilla.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) effects upon the Victorian mind:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. Loss of faith (Matthew Arnold's "Dover Beach")</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2. Cardinal Newman and the Oxford movement</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3. Social Darwinism (not biology!)</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Utilitarianism</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">I. Basic ideas:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness. Actions are wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">II. Jeremy Bentham 1748-1832): lawyer, democratic, populist. Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) External standard of goodness: happiness could be measured quantitatively.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain. Unhappiness is</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> pain and the privation of pleasure (Bentham).</span><br />
c) Law should be based on science. Law and morality should be decided "scientifically."<br />
d) definition of human nature<br />
e) Human beings are under the governance of pain and pleasure."<br />
f) "felicific calculus"<br />
g) Seek to spread pleasure as widely as possible to produce the "general good" or "the greatest happiness to the greatest number."<br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">III. John Stewart Mill (1806-1873): philosopher, political economist, politician.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Internal measure of goodness: happiness was subjective, and tied to altruism, which is as important as self-interest. Happiness is qualitative.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Obligation can be compatible with self-interest if it leads to the greatest good for the greatest number of people. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) <i>System of Logic</i> (1843), outlines the limits and nature of meaningful discussion.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) <i>On Liberty</i> (1859), relates individual liberties to those of he state, and argues that civil restrictions on individual liberties are only permissible if they are only absolutely necessary to prevent harm to others.</span><br />
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1 - Seek happiness rather than pleasure.<br />
2 - Mill was pluralist--individuals should be protected from majority opinion and rules.<br />
3 - Public good.<br />
4 - Help the poor for the public good.<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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Can morality be made "scientific"?<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Pragmatism</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">I. William James (1843-1910</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Popularizer of pragmatism, called his system "radical empiricism."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Spent two years in Germany, returned to Harvard for his medical degree in 1869, and was appointed to an instructorship at Harvard Medical College in 1872. His subject field as an instructor was "physiological psychology."</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Principles of Psychology (1890)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. Mind is an activity, not a mental state. </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2. There are no fragments labeled "sensations" or "ideas" or "mental states." Mind is a dynamic and continuous process in which an organism and the environment are integrated. It is a process of adjustment, and adjustment is intelligent and conscious.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3. Overturned the psychology of "mental states" that was the basis of empirical philosophy since Locke.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) James' pragmatism is practicalism. An idea is useful because it is true, or it is true because it is useful.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Thoughts are just tools with which to do things, and the truth is what's pragmatically useful.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">II. John Dewey (1859-1952)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Instrumentalism: Thoughts are instrumental in working out problems.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Thinking is a process of adjustment between man and his environment.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Truth is relative, and is worked out through experience and life.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Dewey influenced American education: experimental problem-solving, and non-dogmatic teaching.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Criticisms:</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. Since everything is relative, nothing can be decided philosophically.</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2. Pragmatism's stress on relativity fits in with the "efficiency" and authority of "technocracy."</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 115pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Review: ROMANTICISM AND REACTION (1788-1910)</span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Romanticism</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">European Idealism</span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><b><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">HIGH MODERNISM (1910-1945)</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Fascism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Communism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Marx-Lenism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Trotskyism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Stalism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Maoism<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Cubism<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Vorticism<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Surrealism<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Freud<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Jung<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">James Joyce<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ezra Pound<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">T.S. Eliot </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Western Liberalism</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Existentialism </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><b><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">CONTEMPORARY</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Neo-liberalism/New Left/Post-Marxism/Postmodernism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Traditional Western Liberalism (Will it survive?)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Neoconservatism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Post-/Trans-nationalism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Libertarianism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Christian Fundamentalism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Orthodox and Ultra-Orthodox Judaism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Conservative Catholicism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Islamic Fundamentalism and Islamicism</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-weight: bold;">MODERN PHILOSOPHY</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Early 20</span></b><b><sup><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">th</span></sup></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> Century Modern Philosophy</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. Logic</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Russell</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Whitehead</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Frege</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Wittgenstein</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) <i>Tractatus</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Logical Positivism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Psychology</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Freud</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Jung</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Totalitarianism</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1. Futurism and Vorticism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2. Fascism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Italian Fascism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) National Socialism (Hitler)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Japanese Empire</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3. Communism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Lenin and Stalin</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Trotsky</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Mao</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Pol Pot/Khmer Rouge</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Structuralism</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Levi Strauss</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Postmodernism</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Roots in Continental Philosophy</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Rousseau</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Hegel</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Marx</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Nietzsche</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) Heidegger</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">g) existentialism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Structuralism and Post-structuralism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Saussure</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Structuralism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) Levi-Strauss</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) Lacan</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Michael Foucault</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">f) Althusser</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">g) Semiology-Barthes</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) De-constructionism - Jacques Derrida</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) New Historicism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) Feminism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">6) Cultural Relativism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) Alternative lifestyles</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b Value relativism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">7) Idealism</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">8) Capitalism(s)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Revealed as a New Left critique of "late-capital" culture</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Revealed as a critique of "Neo-conservative-ism"</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Ideological capitalism in the wake of Reagan and Thatcher</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d) <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"></span>Transglobalism, the decline of the nation-state</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 57pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Is "capitalism" a system or an activity? Is their a distinction between "Capitalism" and "Crony Capitalism"?</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Artistic/Critical Modernisms</span></b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Modern</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Ultra-modern</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Postmodernism (Frederick Jamison: New Left)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) Jencksian Post-modernism (Charles Jencks, John Barth, Umberto Eco)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">1) Wittgenstein</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">a) First phase: <span style="color: #cc0000;"><i>Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</i> ("The Tractatus")</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">b) Middle/transitional Phase: <i>The Blue and Brown Books</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">c) <i>Foundations of Mathematics</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">d)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Notes on Frazier, Freud, and Aesthetics (<i>Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief</i>).</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">e) Second phase: <span style="color: #cc0000;"><i>Philosophical Investigations</i></span>, On Certainty)</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">2) Maurice O'C. Drury, <i>The Danger of Words</i></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">3) Norman Malcolm</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";">4) Cora Diamond</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">5)<span style="color: #cc0000;"> P.M.S. Hacker, <i>Analytic Commentary on Philosophical Investigations</i>, <i>Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-century Analytic Philosophy</i></span></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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</span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="color: #cc0000;">6) Ray Monk, <i>Wittgenstein: the Duty of Genius</i></span> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-17345697035808228732015-12-29T12:25:00.001-05:002020-11-23T10:51:59.347-05:00Analytic Philosophy<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reading:</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Osborne: </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">149-152</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Kenny: 365-381</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin</span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Supplemental Reading:</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #f3f3f3; font-size: medium;">Oxford: 252-274</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Duncan Richter: Introduction to Wittgenstein from the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">:</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></i></span><a href="http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/wittgens.htm"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/w/wittgens.htm</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein Links: </span></span></span><span style="color: #0024f4;"><a href="http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/lw/links/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/lw/links/</span></span></a></span><br />
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<b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Terms:</span></span></b></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Ludwig Wittgenstein</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Analytic Philosophy</span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Notes:</span></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">British Philosophy</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">It is often maintained by historians of philosophy that England has had only one school of philosophy, or rather, that it has had none at all, for its philosophy is a perpetual protest against Scholasticism. <span style="color: #cc0000;">A faith in experimental science, based upon empirical evidence of the senses, and a complementary distrust of scholastic and rationalistic a priori speculation, may be said to form the cornerstone of the English philosophical tradition. </span>Although Swift developed <span style="color: #cc0000;">no systematic philosophy--this absence, too, seems to be characteristic of the tentative and experimental English mind</span>--a peculiarly English and to some degree Lockeian nexus of assumptions underlies one major area of his satiric technique.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rejection of Mechanism in Nature</span></span></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[Jonathan Swift strikes] at the affectation of those who, by formula and artifice, impose some rigid subjective perception upon the world and then pay honor to this graven image as truth and to themselves as its discoverers. <span style="color: #cc0000;">The folly of man's refusal to see things as they really are is thus consistently translated by Swift into symbolic representations of man as a mechanism. Inflexible, blinded to external truth by his own conceit, contentious in his assumption of the infallibility of his subjective responses, man becomes a puppet in life's Punch-and-Judy show of artifice, system and self-delusion.</span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Source: Bullitt, John M. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jonathan Swift and the Anatomy of Satire</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1953. (124).</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Emphasis on the Particular</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">William Blake argued for the perception of reality as a disparate aggregate, for a reality consisting of "minute particulars" which expressed the distinction and individuality of all things. Blake rejected the neoclassical attempt or practice to get at the essence or first principles of things by homogenizing or otherwise discarding the details. According to Blake, it was these details which comprise the windows into perception. "General Forms have their vitality in Particulars" (Jerusalem 91:30). "Sacrifice the Parts, What becomes of the Whole?" (462). "Minute Discrimination is Not Accidental. All Sublimity is founded on Minute Discrimination" (453). "What is General Nature? Is there such a Thing: Strictly speaking, All knowledge is Particular" (459).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Source: Blake, William. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Complete Writings of William Blake</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Keynes, Geoffrey, ed. New York: Random House, 1957.</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Francis Bacon: Abstract Necessities and Four Idols</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<div class="post-body entry-content" style="border-color: rgb(187, 187, 187) rgb(187, 187, 187) rgb(238, 238, 204); border-style: dotted; border-width: 0px 1px; line-height: 1.6em; margin: 0px 0px 0.75em; padding: 10px 14px 1px 29px;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">Francis Bacon observed that human beings have a tendency to draw the separate facts, particulars, and events of experience into abstract necessities, general laws, and "natural" mechanisms. According to Bacon in Aphorism 45 from Book I of the </span></span></span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">New Organum</span></span></span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">:</span></span></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The human understanding is of its own nature prone to suppose the existence of more order and regularity in the world than it finds. And though there be many things in nature which are singular and unmatched, yet it devises for them parallels and conjugates and relatives which do not exist. Hence the fiction that all celestial bodies move in perfect circles, spirals and dragons being (except in name) utterly rejected.Hence too the element of fire with its orb is brought in, to make up the square with the other three which the sense perceives.Hence also the ratio of density of the so-called elements is arbitrarily fixed at ten to one.And so on of other dreams.And these fancies affect not dogmas only, but simple notions also. (50)</span></span></span></span></span></b></span></div>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">In Aphorisms 39 through 44 of The New Organon, Bacon defines four classes of "idols" which he says "beset men's minds."These four distinctions Bacon calls, first, Idols of the Tribe; second, Idols of the Cave; third, Idols of the Marketplace; fourth, Idols of the Theater.</span></span></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Tribe, says Bacon, "have their foundation in human nature itself . . . [H]uman understanding is like a false mirror, which, receiving rays irregularly, distorts and discolors the nature of things by mingling its own nature with it." Our understanding is distorted by our own animal nature.</span></span></span></span></span></b></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Cave "are the idols of the individual man . . . [M]en look for sciences in their own lesser worlds [--according to their personal nature, the books they read, their education, the friendship and authority of those whom they esteem and admire--] and not in the greater or common world." Our understanding is distorted by our upbringing, through the association of our families and close friends.</span></span></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Market are "formed by the intercourse and association of men with each other.<span style="color: #cc0000;">"Because of this association, language is often distorted "according to the apprehension of the vulgar.And therefore the ill and unfit choice of words wonderfully obstructs the understanding."Learned men are often in error in their definitions and explanations because "words plainly force and overrule the understanding, and throw all into confusion, and lead men away into numberless empty controversies and idle fancies." Our understanding is distorted by where we work and who we work with.</span></span></span></span></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;">The Idols of the Theatre are "various dogmas of philosophies, and also the wrong laws of demonstration."These various dogmas are "entire systems . . . principles and axioms in science, which by tradition, credulity, and negligence have come to be received."The demonstrations and proofs for these systems are like "so many stage plays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion." </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal;"> Our understanding is distorted by the language and orientations of various schools, academies, the sciences and the professions.</span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Bacon, Francis. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Novum Organum</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. New York: Liberal Arts Press. 1960. (47-50).</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rejection of Inevitable Necessity</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The idea that man is an unconscious victim of external forces, or internal necessities, is one of the greatest intellectual orthodoxies of our time. Ever since the waning of traditional religions, men have been convincing themselves of one inevitable necessity after another, until the point has been reached where some of them have actually started to become operative in detail. Whether or not this desire to discover some omnipotent external force signifies an intellectual rage for order and understanding or rather a deep psychological drive to identify with a superhuman force and avoid responsibility is open to question: but its existence is beyond dispute. It can be seen in the Marxist appeal to inevitable laws of history, in the Freudian appeal to basic drives of the libido and most recently in the appeal to underlying forces of technology by Galbraith and McLuhan.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Jencks, Charles. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Architecture 2000: Predictions and Methods</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. New York: Praeger. 1971. (20).</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Analysis of Intellectual Mythology</span></span></span></b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the days of the Enlightenment, science was rightly seen as being in the forefront of the struggle against religious mystification, superstition and dogma. Today science has replaced religion as the source and authority of truth. Every source of truth must, in the nature of things, also be a source of falsehoods, against which it must itself struggle. But it may also be a source of intellectual mythology, against which it is typically powerless. One great and barely recognized source of such mythology in our age is science itself. The unmasking of scientific mythology (which is to be distinguished from scientific error) is one of the tasks of philosophy. For philosophy is not the under-labourer of the sciences, but rather their tribunal; it adjudicates not the truth of scientific theorizing, but the sense of scientific propositions. Its aim is neither to engage in nor abjure science, but to restrain it within the bounds of sense, to curb the metaphysical impulse that is released by misinterpretations of the significance of scientific discoveries, to restrain scientists and philosophers (who have been beguiled by their myth-making) from metaphysical nonsense.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">P. M. S. Hacker. </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-century Analytic Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. Oxford: Blackwell. 1996. (123).</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN (1889-1951)</span></span></span></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Early Thought: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Tractatus</span></span></i></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Although the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tractatus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> conceived of logic as nonsense, or the metaphysical ends of logic as being beyond sense, it shared logic's desire to employ depth analysis to reveal the hidden essence of things. The </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tractatus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> was "possessed by a vision of the crystalline purity of the logical forms of thought, language and the world," and strove for a sublime, unifying form of philosophical insight and procedure.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">According to Wittgenstein's early thought, metaphysical contraptions do exist, but language cannot describe them. Metaphysics lies beyond the limits of language. Metaphysics cannot be described, but we know that something is "out there." Thus, according to the most quoted slogan from the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tractatus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: "7. What can be said at all can be said clearly, and what we cannot talk about we must pass over in silence." </span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Later Thought: Philosophical Investigations</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> presents a diametrically contrasting philosophical view.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Investigations strove for a "'quiet weighing of linguistic facts' (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Zettel</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §447) in order to distangle the knots in our understanding . . . [through a] heightened awareness of the motley of spatial and temporal phenomena of language (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §108), [and] the deceptive forms which lead us into conceptual confusion."</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn1"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> In the Investigations Wittgenstein strove for "no more than the description and arrangement of what is simple and familiar, 'hidden' only because it was always before one's eye and goes unnoticed" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §129). In these respects, Wittgenstein is remarkably suggestive of the philosophical stance Poe assumes in his mystery stories.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A key difference between Wittgenstein's early and later thought concerns the expressibility of metaphysical propositions. According to the most quoted slogan from the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tractatus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">: "7. What can be said at all can be said clearly, and what we cannot talk about we must pass over in silence." In contrast to this, Wittgenstein's later thought rejects the notion of the inexpressible entirely. If it cannot be expressed, then it does not exist. Indeed, there is nothing that language cannot express. "For there is nothing that cannot be said, and there is nothing beyond the bounds of sense save nonsense."</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn2"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Metaphysics is nonsense.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Wittgenstein broke free from the vision of a single, unifying form of philosophical insight and procedure, and replaced it with a method in thinking that moved upon many levels and was aware of the "prodigious multiplicity, diversity and inexhaustible richness of things, and . . . describe[d] the nature of a vast variety of phenomena for what they are in themselves, without seeking to fit them into one, all embracing unitary vision." </span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn3"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Although expressing a rejection of metaphysics and idealism, the Tractatus pursued the same illusion of a unified theory (or underlying metaphysics) of logic. In the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, however, Wittgenstein came to reject deep logic because it is an act of superstition to pursue "a final analysis of our forms of language, and so a single completely resolved form of expression. That is, as if our usual forms of expression were, essentially, unanalysed; as if there were something hidden in them that had to be brought to light" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §91).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In Wittgenstein's later thought, philosophy is not, as the logical positivists believed, a science. Philosophy "neither explains or deduces anything" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §128), but "leaves everything as it is" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">§124). <span style="color: #cc0000;">Philosophy does not contribute "to human knowledge, but to human understanding."</span></span></span></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn4"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> As for philosophical problems, they are simply misunderstandings caused by conceptual confusion. Once these misconceptions are understood, philosophical problems are revealed to be nonsense, but not "beyond sense" or metaphysical--as Wittgenstein had conceived them to be in the Tractatus. Philosophical theories are latent, concealed nonsense; the task of philosophy is to transform them into patent nonsense (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §524). In the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Wittgenstein introduced a new analysis based on descriptions of the way we use expressions. This descriptive analysis is synoptic in the way context operates as a determining factor in our understanding of the meaning of an expression.</span></span></span><span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn5"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[5]</span></span></a></span><br />
</span><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: black;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Appropriate Response to Phenomena: Empirical Explanation vs. Understanding</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein was unsatisfied with Frazer's reading and conclusions regarding Frazer's own anthropological findings. Wittgenstein asserted that the human rituals Frazer cataloged went beyond the simple expedient of an empirical explanation, and that, indeed, understanding Frazer's discoveries does not require an empirical explanation. Frank Cioffi describes this in Wittgenstein on Freud and Frazer: "Whatever relevance empirical method may have to the question of the nature and origin of ritual practices . . . is not the central question which Frazer raises and is not, in any case, the question which arises for us when we contemplate human sacrifice and the ritual life of mankind."</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn6"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Wittgenstein voices the same objection to psychoanalytic explanation. Again, according to Cioffi, "Freud advances explanations when the matters he deals with demand clarification, that is, they call for an elucidation of the relation in which we stand to the phenomena rather than an explanation of them."</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn7"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Again, as to aesthetics, "causal hypotheses are conceptually inappropriate responses to requests for the explanation of aesthetic experiences and . . . they are not what we really want."</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn8"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Melville also makes this distinction in Moby-Dick. In Moby-Dick, Melville is rejecting scientific, philosophical and religious explanations in favor of what he really wants, which is a kind of self-understanding, or an understanding of how he stands relation to scientific, religious and philosophical phenomena.</span></span></span><span style="color: #0024f4;"><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn9"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[9]</span></span></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 20pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Conception of Philosophy</span></span></span></b></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI </span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">§109).</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Our motto might be: 'Let us not be bewitched'" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §690).</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In Wittgenstein's later thought, philosophy is not, as the logical positivists believed, a science. Philosophy "neither explains or deduces anything" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §128), but "leaves everything as it is" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §124). Philosophy does not contribute "to human knowledge, but to human understanding."</span></span></span><span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn10"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[10]</span></span></a></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What is your aim in philosophy--to shew the fly the way out of the fly-bottle."</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"The treatment of a question is like the treatment of an illness" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §255).</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">It was one of Wittgenstein's aims to make philosophical inquiry into a therapy and, through an examination of language, purge philosophy of those questions which were based upon illusory concepts, i.e. concepts which were parented by a misapprehension of grammar rather than the facts of nature. Wittgenstein was put on this track by Hertz and his grappling with the terms "force" and "electricity." Hertz writes: </span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Our confused wish finds expression in the confused question as to the nature of force and electricity. But the answer which we want is not really an answer to this question. It is not by finding out more and fresh relations and connections that it can be answered; but by removing the contradictions existing between those already known, and thus perhaps by reducing their number. When these painful contradictions are removed, the question as to the nature of force will not have been answered; but our minds, no longer vexed, will cease to ask illegitimate questions.</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn11"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[11]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophical theories are latent, concealed nonsense; the task of philosophy is to transform them into patent nonsense (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §524).</span></span></span><span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn12"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[12]</span></span></a></span></o:p></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 20pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Therapy for Philosophers</span></span></span></b></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's technique of philosophical clarification is therapeutic in that it involves a rearrangement of familiar and unfamiliar contexts for the use of expressions that will make the grammar of the relevant expressions surveyable (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">PI</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §92, §225)</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn13"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[13]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Decide which of the following propositions provides the most accurate description of reality:</span></span></o:p></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) My mind is hungry for a big lunch.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) My brain is hungry for a big lunch.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) My body--my stomach--is hungry for a big lunch.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) I am hungry for a big lunch.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The correct answer is d. The other statements are nonsense. Minds do not exist; brains are only to be found in medical textbooks, or on the tables of surgeons and gourmands; and bodies are only to be found at the morgue, at the beach, in the pages of muscle magazines, or in Newton's descriptions of objects possessing mass.</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn14"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[14]</span></span></span></a></o:p></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">It is not an easy thing to give up one's mind. If this concept is still difficult, you need more therapy. Consider the following propositions:</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) My mind is thinking about Plato.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) My brain is thinking about Plato.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) I am thinking about Plato.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) You would do well to keep Plato in mind for the exam.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) An Idea just crossed my mind.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">f) The idea went in my right ear and out my left, crossing my mind along the way.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">g) Some bees dance.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">h) Some bees exist.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">i) The dinosaurs no longer exist.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">j) On my day off I am going to sit in the park and exist.</span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Propositions c, d, e, g and i are valid. The rest are nonsense. They exhibit conceptual confusion rooted in the misapprehension of language.</span></span></span><span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn15"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[15]</span></span></a></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 20pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Synoptic Surview</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"The pedigree of psychological concepts: I strive not after exactness, but after a synoptic view." (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §464).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A technique for arriving at a perspicuous, synoptic surview of our critical problems:</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The term "critical synoptics" can be used to refer to a number of analytical activities. For critics, critical synoptics refers to the examination of the influences of context, scenario and lexical/syntactical precision upon the meanings of propositions and concepts. The idea is to construct a synoptic overview of a concept or proposition. Any variety of techniques might be applied toward this end. <span style="color: #cc0000;">In memorable terms, the basic idea of synoptic analysis is to tell stories about the ways propositions and concepts are used and understood. Such an overview provides a test for determining whether or not the proposition is valid. Once an appreciation for the synoptic overview is part and parcel of the critic's technique, any variety of concepts might be analyzed. The point of the following questions is to realize a synoptic overview:</span></span></span></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">I. How is the concept used? The use of the word, phrase, or proposition determines its meaning.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">II. How is the concept used and understood in other scenarios? What is the accustomed practice of its use? The meaning of a word, phrase, or proposition is determined by what is explained by an explanation of its meaning, or an explanation of the rules for its use. (How does the concept reflect the discourse community that gives it rise?).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">III. How is the concept understood? The way the word, phrase, or proposition is understood is its meaning.</span></span></span><a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftn16"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[16]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">IV. What does the concept mean in simplified terms? How would the use of the word, phrase, or proposition be taught to a child?</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">V. What are the implications of the concept? What kind of world must be necessary in order for the use of the word, phrase, or proposition to be correct or legitimate?</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">VI. Are abstract nouns used in the formulation of the concept? Abstract nouns often have no validity outside of (and thus also within) the proposition in which they are used.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></div><span style="color: #cc0000;">
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<span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">VII. Does the concept represent an empirical explanation of a phenomenon, or does it advance understanding of a phenomenon? Does the concept represent what we really want to know about a phenomenon? </span></span></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 20pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;"><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Consider the following as synoptic overviews of various philosophical problems:</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Perhaps the most important thing in connection aesthetics is what might be called aesthetic reactions, e.g. discontent, disgust, discomfort. The expression of discontent is not the same as the expression of discomfort. The expression of discomfort says: 'Make it higher . . . too low! . . . Do something to this.'"</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What makes bright colors bright? Does it reside in the concept or in cause and effect? There is no luminous gray. Is this inherent in the concept of gray or is it part of the psychology, that is, of the natural history of gray, and isn't it strange that I don't know this?"</span></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What is called an alteration in concepts is of course not merely an alteration in what one says, but in what one does."</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Duration of sensation. Compare the duration of a sense-experience of sound with the duration of he sensation of touch which informs you that you have a ball in your hand; and with the "feeling" that informs you that your knees are bent" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §478).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">""It is quite possible that he glands of a sad person secrete differently from those of someone who is glad; and also that their secretion is the cause of sadness. But does it follow that the sadness is a sensation produced by the secretion?" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §509).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"We should hardly ask if a crocodile means something when it comes at a man with open jaws. And we should declare that since the crocodile cannot think there is really no question of meaning here" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §522).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What is the difference between these two things: Following a line involuntarily--Following a line intentionally?</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What is the difference between these two things: Tracing a line with care and great attention--Attentively observing how my hand follows a line?" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §583).</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"The limitlessness of the visual field is clearest when we are seeing nothing in complete darkness" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §616).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"I should like to ask, not so much 'What must we do to avoid contradiction?' as 'What ought we to do if we have arrived at a contradiction?'" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §688).</span></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"To understand sums in the elementary school the children would have to be important philosophers; failing that, they need practice" (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Z</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> §703).</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein</span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">in Retrospect</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In a series of architectural notes Wittgenstein made while building the spare and block-shaped family home in Vienna, the philosopher proposed that aesthetic reactions consist of feelings or impressions associated with distaste—“discontent, disgust, discomfort”—and the expressions of these forms of aesthetic distaste were formulated as instructions for reform and improvement—“Make it higher! . . . too low! . . . Do something to this.” If I am not wrong, these notions may lead to a characterization of Wittgenstein’s philosophy at its highest level. This characterization is as follows:</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The essential thrust of Wittgenstein’s philosophy is the search for an appropriate response to phenomena. In order to identify this elusive appropriate response, it is necessary to construct a critical synoptic surview; that is, an imaginative overview or “story” in which the phenomena in question can be regarded with clarity and precision. Our conceptual confusion, however, can cloud our overview and lead to an inappropriate response, be it in our understanding, in our pronouncements, or in our actions. Our use—but of course more essentially our misuse—of language can lead to conceptual confusion and philosophical credulousness, and hence the attention paid in analytic philosophy to the use of language; thus the analysis of propositions is the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">activity</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, but the </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> itself is the quest for an appropriate response, and an understanding of the world that both supports and is incumbent upon that appropriate response.</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In an age which has mythologized science—or, indeed, in past ages which have mythologized sympathetic, superstitious and magical relationships—and as well amongst a species (Homo sapiens) which tends toward uniformity, conformity, rationalization, and following the habits of custom—empirical explanation is generally accepted as the end of all serious intellectual inquiry. While offering empirical explanation is the appropriate response to some phenomena—exploiting a pharmacological reaction for medical purposes, for instance—empirical explanation is an inappropriate response to other types of phenomena, such as aesthetic phenomena, which are more appropriately approached with the idea of getting hold of some sort of understanding. This understanding chiefly consists of understanding where we stand in relation to the phenomenon we are examining.</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Interestingly enough, our understanding—our nurtured and cultivated understanding, which is rooted in an understanding of our feelings—can and has reformed our science, which (since Bacon, Locke and Newton) has been taken from a level of pursuing empirical explanation to a level of an on-going skeptical-empirical enquiry. In our cultivated response to poetry we have learned that our poetry (our mythological expression) is in a state of “semiotic flux” and transformation. When our myths become fixed, they stultify and breed orthodoxy and barbarism. Our myths must therefore become supple and changing, yielding softly to the shifting impressions of the poetic consciousness. Civilized science—the skeptical-empirical method—is in a like state of flux. Aristotle’s notion of potentiality and actuality is revised by Galileo’s emphasis on the quantitative measurement of the physical characteristics of motion, which is revised by Newtonian mechanics, which is revised by Einstein’s relativity, which is revised by quantum mechanics, and so on. These different models are “right” for different times, at different scales, for different tasks, and they all the time progress along a path weaving in and out through ever more subtle and deft articulations of understanding. We don't believe in them, but rather believe in what they can show us, or what they can do for us. They are not essential models, but tools we pick up and set down as we go about engineering new methods for dealing with (and in) the world.</span></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Phases of Wittgenstein</span></span></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a) First phase: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> ("The Tractatus")</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">b) Middle/transitional Phase: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Blue and Brown Books</span></span></i></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">c) Foundations of mathematics</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">d) Notes on Frazier, Freud, and Aesthetics (</span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">).</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">e) Second phase: </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophical Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">On Certainty</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref1"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> P.M.S. Hacker, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-century Analytic Philosophy</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996)., 98. The abbreviations "Z" and "PI" refer, respectively, to Wittgenstein's </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Zettel</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1967) and </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Philosophical Investigations</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1958).</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref2"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 111.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref3"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 98-99.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref4"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref5"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[5]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Carter Kaplan, Critical Synoptics: Menippean Satire and the Analysis of Intellectual Mythology (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000) 27-29.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref6"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Frank Cioffi, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein on Freud and Frazer</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1998), 2.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref7"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 3.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref8"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref9"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[9]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Carter Kaplan, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Critical Synoptics</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 117.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref10"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> P.M.S. Hacker, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Place</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">...110, quoted in Carter Kaplan, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Critical Synoptics</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> 28.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref11"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[11]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Quoted in P. M. S. Hacker, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Insight and Illusion</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972), 21.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref12"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[12]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Carter Kaplan, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Critical Synoptics</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> (Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson) 28.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref13"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[13]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 28-29.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref14"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[14]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 14.</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref15"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[15]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> Ibid., 203.</span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="file:///U:/Philosophy/html%20files/Week%2010.htm#_ftnref16"><span style="color: #0024f4;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">[16]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> P. M. S. Hacker, </span></span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Wittgenstein's Place</span></span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, 125. Press, 2000)</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-10657807403109339082015-12-29T12:22:00.000-05:002020-08-23T11:26:38.052-04:00Postmodernism and Globalism<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: ";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Reading:</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Osborne: </span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">161-182</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Kenny: 382-386</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Penguin</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Supplemental Reading:</span></b></span><br />
<span style="color: #f3f3f3; font-size: medium;">Oxford: 363-378</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Terms:</span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Postmodernism</span></span></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoconservatism"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Neoconservativism</span></span></a></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoconservatism"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Paleoconservatism</span></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Leo Strauss</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Francis </span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Fukuyama</span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_chomski"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Noam Chomsky</span></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derrida"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Jacques Derrida</span></span></a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Michel Foucault</span></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Jean Baudrillard</span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredric_Jameson"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Fredric Jameson</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_School"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";">Frankfurt School</span></span></a></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-weight: bold;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Notes in progress (miscellaneous and incomplete):</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://www.history.com/video.do?name=americanhistory&bcpid=1676043206&bclid=1729287267&bctid=1614612123">The Cold War</a></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://www.wnd.com/index.php?fa=PAGE.view&pageId=117313">Sensitivity Training and Beyond</a></span></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/hoax/archive/permalink/the_sokal_hoax/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Sokal's Hoax I</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokal_affair"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">II</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span><a href="http://www.complete-review.com/reviews/sokala/theshoax.htm"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">III</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">, </span></span><a href="http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/weinberg.html"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">IV</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">.</span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">From </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Bloom"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Allan Bloom</span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Closing of the American Mind</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">. 1987.</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Part I - Students</span></span></b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">" [As a result of the sixties] the very distinction between educated and uneducated in America had been leveled, that even the pitiful remnant of it expressed in the opposition between highbrow and lowbrow had been annihilated. The real product was homogenized persons... Freedom had been restricted in a most effective way--by the impoverishment of alternatives" (319).</span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Part II - Nihilism, American Style: From Socrates’ Apology to Heidegger’s Rektoratsrede</span></span></b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nothing that was not known to or experienced by those who constitute the enormous majority--which is ultimately the only authority in America--had any reality. Catering to democracy's most dangerous and vulgar temptations was the function of the famous 'critical philosophy.'. . . [T]his fatal progress was accompanied by all the abstract substitutes for thought [which are the legacy of Rousseau, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and (to a lesser extent) Hegel]. They provided an artificial substitute for intellectual stimulation and confirmed that there was only one way to be" (320).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rousseau's Radicalization and the German University</span></span></b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Late-Enlightement: ". . . man could be understood by his historical origins . . . moral and political standards could be derived from the historical traditions of the various nations, to replace the failed standards of natural right and law; and that the study of high culture, particularly that of Greece, would provide the models for modern achievement; that a proper understanding of religion might provide a faith proof against critical reason" (301).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"However, the very condition of this exhilaration in the human sciences . . . created problems at the outset and in the long run undermined the confidence of the practitioners" (301).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Joined to the health and expansiveness of natural science was the recognition that humane learning had itself failed to generate moral and political standards."</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rousseau: "After [Rousseau], community, virtue, compassion, enthusiasm, the beautiful and the sublime, an even imagination, that banished faculty, had their innings against modern philosophy and science" (299).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Aristotle's human sciences are part of the science of nature, and his knowledge of man is connected to and in harmony with his knowledge of the stars, bodies in motion, and animals other than man. This is not the case with sciences after Rousseau, which depend on the existence of a realm entirely different from nature. Their study is not part of the study of nature, and the two kinds of study have little to do with one another" (300-1).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Goethe: "Action has primacy over contemplation, deed over speech. The act of the creator, not preceded and controlled by thought, is the first thing. The scholar with his reason misunderstands the origin because he lacks the vital force that lies behind the order of things. . . [In the social realm, the realm of freedom, [t]he hidden premise of the realm of freedom is that action has primacy over thought" (303). "The scholar is an objective reasoner, the poet a subjective creator" (307).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber">Weber</a>: "It is values rather than reasons that found and sustain communities" (305).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Rousseau: "'Ancient statesmen spoke endlessly of morals and virtue; ours speak only of commerce and money'" (304)."Men of the Enlightenment looked down on the Greek thinkers because they thought them wrong. Romantics respected them because their truth or falsity became a matter of indifference" (306). Rousseau's observations and convictions gave birth to the idea of culture. It was to the study of Greece or Sparta or Athens as models of culture that Rousseau's reflection led. The motive for this study--which flourished particularly in Germany, where Rousseau's influence was most strongly felt . . . was to understand culture, with a view to the founding of a German culture" (305). </span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">But the Greek philosophers were left out of the study of Greek culture, which instead emphasized poets, who are "culture founders." Reading the poets in this limited sense, and in ignoring the skepticism of Greek philosophy, Rousseau's "discovery of Greek 'culture' was contrary to Greek philosophy" (305).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Historical consciousness: Poets and thinkers have to be understood within their own cultural context. In is wrong and naive to believe that great thinkers are to be understood individually and in the same way at all times. Poetry and philosophy is merely an expression of these poets' and philosophers' culture, from which they are inseparable. Their value or interest for the continental idealists lies in the degree to which their work created and formed their culture, the ways in which their work created and formed their culture, and, for Hegel, the ways in which their contribution illustrates the principles of historical process.</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nietzsche: "If we take 'historical consciousness' seriously there cannot be objectivity, and scholarship as we know it is simply a delusion, and a dangerous one, for objectivity undermines subjectivity . . . The discovery of culture and the folk-mind means that there cannot be universal principles of understanding, Reason is a myth that makes mythmaking [culture forming] impossible to comprehend" (307).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Nietzsche "coupled his taste for the [Greek] tragedies with something very new--a radical attack on Socrates, the founder of traditional rationalism [reason], which is the essence of the university" (307). "This was probably the first attack made by a philosopher on Socrates, and it was a violent one, continuing throughout Nietzsche's whole career . . . Nietzsche, and Heidegger following him, are the first modern thinkers to take Socrates . . . really seriously as an opponent, rather than as a cultural artifact. Socrates is alive and must be overcome . . . it is essential to recognize that this is the issue in Nietzsche" (307-308)</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">For Nietzsche and Heidegger, Socrates is in opposition because Socrates "destroyed the tragic sense of life, which initiated man's true situation amidst things and allowed for creative forming of life against the terror of existence, unendowed with and unguided by any pre-existing forms or patterns" (308).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">For Nietzsche and Heidegger, "There cannot be, as Socrates believed, the pure mind, which is trans-historical. This belief is the fundamental premise and error of science...." (308).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"The scholar cannot understand the will to power, not a cause recognized by science.... The scholar neither has it [the will to power] nor does his method permit him to have it or see it. The scholar could never conquer the mind of man" (309).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"Nietzsche's war on the university led in two directions--either to an abandonment of the university by serious men, or to its reform to make it play a role in the creation of culture" (309).</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Heidegger: Like Nietzsche, Heidegger sought an alternative for "Plato and Aristotle, which he . . . believed to be at the root of Christianity and modern science" (310). Heidegger turned to the pre-socratics in order to figure out what Plato was responding to. Not interested so much in the response, but rather in the cultural medium Plato lived in.</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">In Socrates Heidegger saw "the skeptical seeker after the way to knowledge by means of unaided reason" (311). So, whatever his method might have been is irrelevant; what is important was Socrates' activity of cultural production.</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Heidegger's Rektoratsrede: Urged intellectual commitment to the Nazi movement, to what he described as "an emerging revelation of being, incarnated in a mass movement" (311).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"The university began in spirit from Socrates' contemptuous and insolent distancing of himself from the Athenian people, his refusal to accept any command from them to cease asking, 'what is justice? What is knowledge What is a god?' and hence doubting the common opinions about such questions, and in his serious game (in the Republic) of trying to impose the rule of philosophers on an unwilling people without respect to their 'culture'" (311). But it was Heidegger's project to "put philosophy at the service of German culture" (311)."The university may of come near to its death when Heidegger joined the German people" in their mass effort to fulfill the Nazi's vision of Germany's emerging position as the so-called Master Race.</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"if I am right in believing that Heidegger's teachings are the most powerful intellectual force in our times, then the crisis of the German university, which everyone saw, is the crisis of the university everywhere" (311-12).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Our present educational problems cannot seriously be attributed to bad administrators, weakness of will, lack of discipline, lack of money, insufficient attention to the three R's, or any of the other common explanations that indicate things will be set aright if we professors would just pull up our socks. All these things are the result of a deeper lack of belief inthe university's vocation" (312).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"What happened to the universities in Germany in the thirties is what has happened and is happening everywhere. The essence of it all is not social, political, psychological, or economic, but philosophic. And, for those of us who wish to see, contemplation of Socrates is our most urgent task. This is properly an academic task" (312).</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"I must reiterate that Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche are thinkers of the very highest order. This is, in fact, precisely my point. We must relearn what this means and also that there are others who belong in the same rank" (240).Who? (Goto page 325?)</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></span></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Part III - The University</span></span></b><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The Sixties:</span></span><span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: ";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">"All the radicalism of the sixties was intended to hasten our movement in the directions in which we were already going, and never really to question these directions. It was an exercise in egalitarian self-satisfaction that wiped out the elements of the university curriculum that did not flatter our peculiar passions or tastes of the moment" (320).</span></span></div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-22309429344709013902015-11-04T09:35:00.002-05:002021-01-19T13:43:54.852-05:00Paper Guidelines and Final Examination<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">~ Any
subject related to philosophy: figures, fields, schools, movements, problems, historical
periods, influences, philosophy and history/politics, philosophy of __________. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">~
Follow Essay Checklist</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">~
Five pages <i>plus </i>Works Cited page. MLA citation format.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "" "times new roman" "" , "serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">~
Times New Roman, Size 12, double-space.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span>
<br />
<blockquote>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Essay Checklist:</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">I. Introduction</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">A. Create Interest</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">B. Thesis</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">C. Main Points</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">II. Body Paragraph</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">A. Topic Sentence--General Statement</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">B. Supporting Sentences--Specific Statements</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">C. Fully Developed</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">D. One Topic per Paragraph</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">III Conclusion</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">A. Thesis</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">B. Main Points</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">C. What's Next?</span></span></span></div>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">D. Closure</span></span></span></div>
</blockquote>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Philosophy Terms for the Final Examination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">In addition to the following terms,
students will be responsible for the terms from the first half of the semester.</span><br />
<br />
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<br />
<b>Francis Bacon (1561-1616)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b><span class="st">René </span>Descartes (1596-1650)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677 )</b><br />
<b>
</b><b><span class="st">Gottfried </span>Leibniz ( 1646-1716)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>John Locke (1632-1704)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>George Berkeley (1685-1753)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>David Hume (1711-1776)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) </b><br />
<b>
</b><b><span class="st">Jean-Jacques </span>Rousseau (1712-1778)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b><span class="st">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich </span>Hegel (1770-1831)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Karl Marx (1805-1900)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b><span class="st">Friedrich </span>Nietzsche (1844-1900)</b><b> </b><br />
<b>Charles Darwin (1809-1882)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Utilitarianism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Pragmatism</b><br />
<b>Existentialism</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>Analytic Philosophy</b><br />
<b>
</b><b>British/Analytic Philosophy vs. Continental Philosophy <span style="font-size: x-small;">(Click <a href="http://kaplanphilosophy.blogspot.com/2009/09/week-one-introduction.html" target="_blank">HERE</a>)</span></b><br />
<b>Hobbes vs. Locke </b><br />
<br />
<br />
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">P<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">ossible<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"> Essay Question <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Subjects:</span></span></span></span></span></strike><br />
<strike><br /></strike>
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Hobbes
vs. Locke</span></span></strike><br />
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;">British/Analytic
Philosophy vs. Continental Philosophy</span></span></strike><br />
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Socrates and <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">W<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">estern</span> Phil<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">osophy</span></span></span></span></span></span></strike><br />
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Essential Figures in Western Philosophy</span></span></span></span></span></span></strike><br />
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Is Philosophy a Sci<span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">ence?</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></strike><br />
<strike><br /></strike>
<strike><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";">Extra Credit Paragraph (or essay): <i>The Name of the R</i><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><i>ose</i> and Philosophy</span> </span> </span></span></span></span></span></span></strike><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><strike><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"> </span></span></span></span></strike> </span></span><br />
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , "serif";"><br /></span></span></span> </span></span></div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1982253789415301771.post-71004309816096780162009-09-17T12:44:00.022-04:002021-01-19T18:49:07.924-05:00 British/Analytic Philosophy vs. Continental Philosophy<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">While the
following dichotomy requires further detailed description and explication, the
scientific, moral, political and institutional distinctions described here are
essential to our understanding of the transformations evident in the 20<sup>th</sup>
and 21<sup>st</sup> century university, and provide useful characterizations of
the various trends shaping the institutional context and the political tenor of
a variety of contemporary academic discussions.</span><div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">I Abbreviated:</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">British/Analytic
Philosophy vs. Continental Philosophy<br />
<br />
<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">British/Analytic Philosophy:</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Skeptical-Empirical:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> “The senses put us into contact
with a mind-independent reality. <b>Morality and politics:</b> Morality and politics
are legacies of history, and over that history effective and “ethical” methods
have emerged to shape and modify governing practices, policies and
law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b>Politics:</b> Rights are
natural, self-evident. Constitutional, rule-of-law, equality under the law, common law,
democratic-republican structures and checks and balances. <b>Philosophers: </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Socrates, Plato(?), Aristotle, Locke,
Jefferson, Wittgenstein. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-variant: small-caps;">Continental Philosophy:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Idealism:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> “Reality” is a mental
construction. Philosophers are the “scientists” of the mind, and therefore
philosophers are the scientists of <i>everything</i>. <b>Politics:</b> Power is
invested in the sovereign/the state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
state gives people their rights. Authoritarian, relativistic, statist,
socialist, police state, corporate. <b>Philosophers:</b> Rousseau, Kant, Hegel,
Marx, Nietzsche, Weber, Heidegger, Sartre…</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">II Summary
in More Detail:<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">British/Analytic
Philosophy vs. Continental Philosophy<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-variant: small-caps;">British/Analytic Philosophy:</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Method:
Skeptical-Empirical:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">
“The senses put us into contact with a mind-independent reality. <b>Morality and
politics:</b> Morality and politics are legacies of history, and over that history
effective and “ethical” methods have emerged to shape and modify
governing practices, policies and law.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b>Political
philosophy:</b> Power is invested in “the people.” Rights are natural,
self-evident. Constitutional, rule-of-law, people are equal under the law, common law (magisterial authority of
the commons, “the people”—peer juries, precedent, and elected judges and
sheriffs) democratic-republican structures, and checks and balances. <b>Representative
Teachers: </b>Moses, Socrates, Plato(?), Aristotle, St. Augustine, Thomas
Aquinas, Ockham, Francis Bacon, Locke, Franklin, Jefferson, Wittgenstein. <b>Programs:</b>
Liberal education. Open negotiation. Legislative, legal and utilitarian
regulation of markets, production and distribution; magisterial, legal,
regulating and cultural protections of individuals and property. Real
pluralism. Circumspect individualism—assumption of a fixed human nature,
inviolable, unfolding, and separate from abstract or “authorized” definitions. <a name="_Hlk61866319">Cultivated, practiced, sophisticated and tentative
skepticism of authority.</a> Cultivated, practiced, sophisticated and tentative
skepticism of individualism.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Continental Philosophy:</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;"> </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: 8.0pt; mso-margin-top-alt: 0in;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">Method:
Idealism:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif;">
“Reality” is a mental construction (analysis: reality is a collection of
disparate and/or coherent mental and social constructions—or construction
(singular)). “Culture,” morality, law and political philosophy are
“constructions.” Philosophers are the “scientists” of the mind, and therefore
philosophers (credentialed proxies for corporations) are the scientists of <i>everything</i>.
<b>Political Philosophy:</b> Power is invested in the sovereign/the state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The state gives people their rights. Authoritarian,
relativistic, statist, “socialist”… police state… corporate. <b>Representative Teachers:</b>
Marquis de Sade, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Weber, Heidegger,
Sartre…. James, Dewey… Confucius… the Prussian Junker class… the Plutocracy… <b>Programs:</b>
postmodernism, deconstruction, intersectionality, identity politics, corporate
language/speech management, globalism, medical autocracy… Cultivation of the
managerial complex. Managed pluralism, no individualism. Education is a
management function. Human nature—the Human Condition—is a managed
construction, is relative to perception, relative to authorized definitions,
like everything else.<br />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></p>
</div>
Carter Kaplanhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12238488445515604870noreply@blogger.com0